
Glass. 
Book. 



/ 1 i 



FIRST HISTORY OF GREECE. 



BT 



E. M. SEWELL, 



AFTHOR OF " AMY HERBERT," <C THE CHILD 7 S FIRST HISTORY OB* 
ROME," ETC., ETC. 



KEW YOEK. 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

443 & 445 BROADWAY, 
1866. 















In Ex chang* 
Jtrmy And L avy Clufe 
Of Wa.sitiatf.toii ©.Q. C 



PREFACE. 

The history of Greece is, in general, very per- 
plexing to children, from its involving events 
connected -with a number of small states, the 
names of which are for the most part new to 
them. Even to read it with a map does not 
materially lessen the difficulty; for children, 
especially girls, rarely know much of ancient 
geography ; and whilst they are laboriously 
searching for the unknown places, the thread of 
the history is interrupted, and their attention 
perhaps irrecoverably distracted. 

With the view of lessening this evil, a short 
chapter has been prefixed to the following his- 
tory, containing the name of the Grecian states, 
and the chief places mentioned as connected 
with them. And it may perhaps be found that, 
by giving children a lesson in the ancient geo- 
graphy of Greece, before they begin to study 
its history ; and making them as well acquaint- 
ed with the divisions of the country as they are 
with those of England, they may be better able 
to comprehend what otherwise might appear 



6 PREFACE. 

only a confused account of petty wars ; — unin- 
teresting, and unimportant. 

The facts contained in the history have been 
mainly derived from the work of Bishop Thirl- 
walL 



GEOGRAPHY OE GREECE, &c, 



Countries. 
Attica . 



Megaris 
Bceotia . 

Phocis . 

Locri Epicnemidii 

Locri Opuntii. 

Locri Ozolae . 

Doris. 

iEtolia. 

Acarnania, 

Thessalia 



GEECIAN STATES. 

Chief Towns, &c. 

Athens, with its ports,— Piraeus, Phaleruin, and 
Munychia. Eleusis, Decelea, Marathon. The 
river Ilissus, Mount Pentelicus, Mount Parnes. 

Megara. 

Thebes, Platsea, Leuctra, Cheronaea, Thespia, Tana- 
gra, Mount Cithaeron, Mount Helicon. 

Delphi, Mount Parnassus. 

Alpeni. 

Amphissa, Naupactus. 



Thermopylae, Demetrias, the Yale of Tempe, the 
district of Magnesia, Mount Olympus, Mount 
(Eta, Mount Ossa, the Hills of Cynoscephalae. 



Achaia, 
Argolis 
Elia 



Laconia 
Corinthia 
Sicyonia 
Arcadia 



THE PELOPONNESUS. 

Argos, Mycenae, Trcezen, Haliae. 

Olympia, 

Ithome, Messehe. 

Sparta, Helos, Sellasia, the river Eurotas. 

Corinth. 

Sicyon. 

Mantinea, Megalopolis. 



COUNTEIES AND ISLANDS ADJOINING GEEECE. 

Macedonia . . Pydna, Amphipolis, the Peninsula of Chalcidice, 
containing the towns of Olynthus and Potidaea. 

Thrace . . . The peninsula called Chersonesus, containing the 
towns of ^Egos Potami and Sestos. The river 
Strymon. 

Epirus . . . The district of Molossia, Dodona. 

Illyria. 

Italy . . . Crotona, Ehegium. 

Sicily (Island) . Syracuse, Segesta, Selinus, Catana. 

Eubcea (Island) . Eretria, Chalcis, Artemisium. 

Lesbos (Island) . Mitylene. 

The islands of Salarais, JEgina, Thera, Melos, Delos, Paros, Andros, 
Scyros, Crete, Corcyra, Ithaca, Samos, Zacynthus, Cephallenia. 
The three small islands of Arginusae off the coast of iEolis in Asia 
Minor. Sphacteria (off the coast of Laconia.) 



GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. 
ASIA MINOR. 



Countries. 


Chief Towns, &o. 


Pamphilia . 


. The river Eurymedon. 


Mysia . 


. Lainpsacus, Abydcs. 


Jjithynla. 
Lydia . 


. Sardis, Magnesia. The river Pactolus, 


Ionia . 


. Miletus, Ephesus. 


Caria . 


. Myus. 


Cilicia . 


. Issus. 


^lolis. 






PERSIA, ItfDIA, &a 


Media . 


. Ecbatana. 


Susiana 


. Susa. 


Parthia. 




Sogdiana 


. The river Oxus. 


Bactriana. 




Gedrosia. 




Armenia. 




Assyria 


. Babylon, Arbela or Gaugamela. 


Phoenicia 


. Tyre. 


Palestine 


. Jerusalem. 


The rivers Hydas 


ipes, Zaradrus, and Indus. 



EGYPT. 

The desert of Libya, and the city of Alexandria. 

The Pontus Euxinus; now called the Black Sea. 
The Propontis ; now the sea of Marmora. 

The iEgean Sea; now the Archipelago. 

The Hellespont (straits connecting the Propontis with the J2gean Set); 
now the Straits of the Dardanelles. 



CONTENTS. 



pa as 



CHAPTEE I. 
The Siege of Troy ...... 13 

CHAPTEE II. 
The Eeturn of the Heracleids . . .18 

CHAPTEE in. 
The Laws of Lycurgus . . • . « 25 

CHAPTEE IV. 
The First Messenian War .... 34 

CHAPTEE V. 

The Second Messenian War . . . .38 

CHAPTEE VI. 
The Conspiracy of Cylon at Athens ... 43 

CHAPTEE VII. 

Solon gives laws to Athens . . . .46 

CHAPTEE VIII. 

Pisistratus, Tyrant of Athens .... 51 

CHAPTEE IX. 
Hippias exp^ied from Athens . . . .58 

CHAPTEE X. 
The Burning of Sardis ..... 64 



tO CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XL 
Tho Battle of Marathon 

CHAPTER XII. 
The Battle of Thermopylae 

CHAPTER XIII. 
The Battle of Salamis 

CHAPTER XIV. 
The Battle of Platsea . 

CHAPTER XV. 
The Rebuilding and Fortification of Athens 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Cimon banished from Athens . 

CHAPTER XVII. 
The Building of the Parthenon, the Propylsea 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
The Beginning of the Peloponnesian "War 

CHAPTER XIX. 
The Plague at Athens 

CHAPTER XX. 
The Siege of Platsea . 

CHAPTER XXI. 
Pylos taken and fortified . . 

CHAPTER XXII. 
The Peace of Nicias .... 

CHAPTER XXIII. 
Commencement of the Sicilian War • 



CONTENTS. 1 1 

PAGB 

CHAPTEE XXIV. 
Continuation of the Sicilian War . . .207 

CHAPTER XXV. 
Conclusion .of the Sicilian War .... 214 

CHAPTEE XXVI. 
The Return of Alcibiades .... 226 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

The Battle of Arginusse, and the unjust Sentence against 

the Athenian Generals .... 232 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
The Battle of Mgos Potami .... 238 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

The Government of the thirty Tyrants . . .241 

CHAPTER XXX. 
The Death of Socrates 247 

CHAPTER XXXI. 
The Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks . . 251 

CHAPTER XXXII. 
The Peace of Antalcidas .... 262 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 
The Battle of Leuctra . . . . ,268 

CHAPTEE XXXIV. 
The Battle of Mantinea ..... 274 

CHAPTEE XXXV. 
Commencement of the Sacred War , . , 282 



12 CONTENTS. 



PAGB 



CHAPTEE XXXVI. 
The Battle of Chasronea .... 287 

CHAPTER XXXVII. 
The Invasion of Persia by Alexander the Great . . 293 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
The Battle of Issus 298 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 
The Battle of Arbela, or Gaugamela . .. . 304 

CHAPTER XL. 
Alexander defeats Porus .... 308 

CHAPTER XLI. 
Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon • . 316 

CHAPTER XLII. 

Athens taken by Antipater . 

CHAPTER XLIII. 

Athens submits to Cassander 

CHAPTER XLIV. 
Agis IV. endeavours to reform Sparta . . 334 

CHAPTER XLV. 
The Death of Philopoemen . . . .339 

CHAPTER XLVI. 

Corinth destroyed, and Greece made a Roman Province 345 

CHAPTER XLVII. 
Conclusion ....... 848 



HISTORY OF GREECE, 



CHAPTER I. 

THE SIEGE OF TROY. 
b. c. 1184. 

The History of Greece is more confused at first 
than that of many other countries. It goes back 
into years so long past away, that we cannot learn 
any thing certain about them ; and, instead of be- 
ing the account of what happened to one great na- 
tion, it tells us of the events which befel several 
small states. 

Greece is in the south-east of Europe. If we 
were to describe it now, we should say that it is 
bounded on the north by Turkey ; on the east by 
the Archipelago and Asia-Minor ; and on the south 
and west by the Mediterranean. In former times 
the Archipelago was called the iEgeum Mare, or 
iEgean Sea ; and Turkey was divided into Mace- 
donia, Illyria, Thrace, Epirus, and other kingdoms. 

Greece is a beautiful and fertile country, pro- 
ducing olives, vines, figs, corn, and all the neces- 
saries of life ; and, being so far to the south, the 
climate is very warm and pleasant. But it must 
have been much more beautiful in ancient days, 
2 



14 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

when it contained a number of cities and towns, 
adorned with splendid buildings ; besides temples 
ornamented with rows of pillars, and statues, and 
carvings. These things are now in ruins, but even 
the portions that are left are far superior to the 
works of the present day : for the Greeks were espe- 
cially famous for their skill and taste ; and, indeed, 
no nation has ever equalled them in these respects. 

The southern part of Greece was in ancient 
days called the Peloponnesus. It is joined to the 
northern part by the Isthmus of Corinth. 

The whole country, but particularly the Pelopon- 
nesus, is full of mountains, which seem to have been 
the natural cause of the number of small states ; 
since they shut in the people who lived in the val- 
leys, something in the same way as walls shut in 
the inhabitants of a town. There are a great many 
rivers in Greece, but they are narrow, and gener- 
ally dry in the summer. The sea flows round 
Greece on three sides, and, as it is encircled by a 
great number of lovely islands, we may well imagine 
that the inhabitants soon learnt the use of ships and 
boats, and made voyages from their own land to 
visit those who dwelt so near them. The animals 
of Greece were very much the same as ours, except 
that there were wild boars, and wolves, and bears, 
amongst the forests and hills, which persons who 
were bold and hardy used to take pleasure in 
hunting. 

The people who first dwelt in Greece were de- 
scended from Japhet the son of Noah. It was 
from him that all the original inhabitants of Eu- 
rope came ; as the greater part of Asia was peopled 
by the children of Shem, and Africa by the children 
of Ham. 

Thus we are told in the Bible that " the sons of 
Noah that went forth out of the ark, were Shem, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 15 

and Ham, and Japhet ; — and of them was the 
whole earth overspread." * 

"We do not know how many years passed after 
the deluge before Greece was peopled, but we learn 
from ancient writers that the earliest inhabitants 
were the Pelasgi. They do not appear to have been 
at all like the savage tribes we read of as being 
found in parts of America, or Australia, or New 
Zealand ; for they are said to have understood how 
to cultivate their land, and keep sheep, and carry 
on a trade with the neighbouring countries ; and 
their buildings, though they were very rough, were 
so strong that the ruins are to be seen in these 
days. The Greeks used themselves to believe that 
the old castles of the Pelasgi were the work of a 
race of giants called Cyclops, for they could not 
imagine it possible that such huge stones could 
have been put together by common men. 

The next race of people whom we hear of as in- 
habiting Greece were the Hellenes ; from them the 
whole country used to be called Hellas. The name 
of Greece was given to it by the Romans. It is 
supposed that the Hellenes came from the west, 
and gained possession of the country by degrees ; 
not conquering all at once, but living amongst the 
Pelasgi, and being mixed up with them, until at 
length, from being only a small tribe, they became 
masters of the whole land. They were not governed 
by one king any more than the Pelasgi. There 
were still different states having their own rulers, 
though they all spoke nearly the same language. 
It is also said, that by this time colonies of strangers 
had settled in Greece from Egypt and Asia, but we 
know very little about them. The only fact we are 
quite sure of is, that the Greeks learnt how to form 

* Genesis ix. 18, 19. 



16 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the letters of their alphabet from the Phoenicians 
who dwelt on the coasts of Asia-Minor. This gives 
us an idea that they must have been accustomed to 
trade with the Phoenicians and be a good deal with 
them. 

All these ancient people were idolaters. Their 
gods were supposed to have their abodes upon the 
top of a high mountain called Olympus, between 
Thessaly and Macedonia. The chief of all was 
Zeus, but there were a great number of inferior 
deities ; indeed, the Greeks seem to have taken de- 
light in fancying that every town, and river, and 
hill, had a god or goddess of its own. These special 
gods are called tutelary deities. The Greeks also 
supposed that at some peculiar places the will of 
the gods was declared to persons who went to ask 
it. They built temples on these spots, and paid 
great respect to the priests and priestesses who had 
the charge of them. The most famous of the Ora- 
cles, as they were termed, were those of Dodona in 
Epirus, and Delphi in Phocis. The god Zeus was 
worshipped at Dodona, and Apollo at Delphi. 

There are a great many wonderful stories told 
of the events which took place in these early times, 
but there is only one which it is necessary to men- 
tion here — the account of the siege of Troy. 

Troy was a city of Asia-Minor, and the capital 
of a small state called Troas. It stood near the 
sea coast, and was surrounded by strong high walls. 
About the time when the Israelites were governed 
by judges, Troy was governed by a king named 
Priam, Paris, the son of Priam, travelled to Greece, 
and there was very kindly received by Menelaus 
king of Sparta, one of the chief cities in Pelopon- 
nesus. But instead of being grateful for the at- 
tentions which were shown to him, Paris was wicked 
enough, when he went back to Troy, to carry 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 17 

away with him the beautiful wife of Menelaus 
— a lady called Helen. Menelaus, as may well be 
supposed, was exceedingly angry, and so were all 
his friends, and they agreed to join their armies 
and go to besiege Troy. For ten years they tried 
in vain to break down the walls of the city ; and, 
at last, when they found that all their endeavours 
were of no use, they formed a plan for getting 
into it secretly. They made a great hollow wooden 
horse, which they filled with armed men, and 
having done this, the whole Grecian army moved 
away, as if they were intending to give up their 
attempt. The people of Troy were quite deceived, 
and very foolishly were persuaded by a man, who 
was in reality a Greek, but who pretended to be 
a friend of the Trojans, to make a breach in the 
wall and take the horse in. They thought then 
that all their troubles were at an end. But when 
it became dark night, the soldiers who were hidden 
inside the wooden horse stole out very quietly, and 
went as quickly as they could to the gates, and 
opened them. The Greek armies had returned by 
this time and were waiting outside the walls. As 
soon as the gates were opened they rushed in, killed 
the inhabitants, plundered their houses, and, at last, 
burned the city to the ground. And thus ended this 
long war : — b.c. 1184. Almost all that we know 
about it is from the writings of Homer, the oldest 
of the Greek poets, who composed two beautiful 
poems, called the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad 
describes the war and the siege of Troy ; and the 
Odyssey tells of the adventures which befel Ulysses, 
king of the Isle of Ithaca, as he was returning 
from Troy to his own country. 



18 HISTORY OF GREECE. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE RETURN OF THE HERACLEIDS. 

ABOUT B. C. 1124. 

The next great change which took place in Greece 
was the invasion of the southern part of the country, 
or Peloponnesus, — so named from Pelops an ancient 
Greek prince, — by a tribe known as the Heracleids, 
or descendants of Hercules. The Heracleids are 
called Dorians, from their having dwelt in Doris in 
the north of Greece ; but it was always said that 
they originally came from Peloponnesus, and had a 
right to return there. 

The following is the account which the ancient 
Greek writers give of these people. We shall see 
at once, that like almost all old histories of this 
kind it cannot be quite true. 

Hercules, the ancestor of the Heracleids, was 
said to have been the son of the god Zeus ; for the 
Greeks were very fond of fancying that their great 
heroes were descended from the gods. They de- 
clared he was stronger than any person who ever 
lived ; and they kept an account of some of his won- 
derful deeds which were called the twelve labours 
of Hercules. The mother of Hercules was sup- 
posed to have been the grand-daughter of a king 
of Argos in Peloponnesus, and Hercules therefore 
had a right to be king of that state. One of his 
cousins, however, who was his great enemy, took 
possession of the throne, and treated Hercules very 
shamefully during his life, and after his death drove 
all his children away from Argos. They went for 
safety to Attica, another Grecian state to the north 
of Peloponnesus; and Eurystheus, their cruel cousin, 
followed them with a great army. The people of 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 19 

Attica were friends to the Heracleids, and helped 
them in their distress ; and when a battle was fought, 
the Heracleids conquered, and Eurystheus fled away 
in his chariot. He was overtaken in a narrow pass 
amongst great rocks, by Hyllus, the eldest son of 
Hercules, and there slain. Then the Heracleids 
returned in triumph to Argos ; but they were not 
allowed to stay there very long. A dreadful plague 
broke out which destroyed an immense number of 
people, and as the chief persons in Argos believed 
it was a sign that the gods were angry with them, 
they sent to the Oracle at Delphi, to ask the cause 
The answer given them was, that the plague was sent 
because the Heracleids had returned to Argos too 
soon. Of course after such a warning they did not 
dare remain, and once more they left their country 
and went to Attica. 

Several years went by after this, and then Hyllus, 
the eldest of the race of Hercules, sent again to the 
Oracle of Delphi, to know if the time had arrived 
when they might go back to Argos. " Wait," re- 
plied the Oracle, " for the third crop, and then re- 
turn by the Straits." The Heracleids thought they 
understood this. They waited for three years, till 
three crops or harvests had been gathered in ; and 
then they set out for their ancient home across the 
Isthmus of Corinth. But they were met by the 
inhabitants of Peloponnesus and defeated. Again 
and again they tried, and still they never could 
succeed. More than a hundred years passed during 
these misfortunes. Hyllus died, and his son ; and 
it might have been thought that the Heracleids, 
having suffered so many disappointments, would 
have given up all idea of being restored to their 
country. But in the third generation, that is, in 
the time of the grandson of Hyllus, the Oracle of 
Delphi was once more consulted, and the answer 



20 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

given before was made clear. " The third crop,* 
meant the third generation, and by " the Straits," 
it was intended that they were to pass over to Pelo- 
ponnesus by sea, and not by land. Then, at last, 
the Heracleids gained their wishes, and. having 
crossed the Straits, defeated their enemies, and 
took possession, not only of Argos, but of the whole 
of Peloponnesus. 

This was the story told by the Grecian poets, 
but all that we can really believe about it is, that 
the Dorians did really cross over to Peloponnesus 
and settle themselves there by degrees. 

After this, no great change took place for a great 
many years. The different states of Greece were 
like persons belonging to one family, living apart, 
and often quarrelling with each other, but still not 
liking strangers to interfere with them. They 
worshipped the same gods, and consulted the same 
oracles ; and in order to decide questions which 
concerned all, or many of the states, they chose 
particular persons to meet together at stated times 
and settle what was to be done. These persons 
formed what was called Amphictyonies, or Amphic- 
tyonic councils. There were several of these coun- 
cils, but the most celebrated is that which used to 
meet twice a year to arrange all affairs concerning 
the temple at Delphi. 

The Greeks, however, did not keep entirely to 
their own land and the islands near it. Some of 
the ancient people, who were driven out of Pelopon- 
nesus when the Heracleids or Dorians took posses- 
sion of the country, went over to Asia-Minor, and 
settled themselves near the coast ; and in time others 
followed their example. The Greeks were always 
inclined to be restless, and to like moving to new 
places ; and by degrees there were Greek states 
and cities not only in Asia-Minor, but also in Sici- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 21 

ly, and the south of Italy, and the island of Cyprus, 
and even in Egypt, and Libya, in Africa. The 
different states were also in the habit of founding 
colonies in the countries adjoining Greece. There 
were several of these colonies on the coast of Mace- 
donia. A strong feeling of union existed between 
the colonies and the state from which they came. 
The colonies were careful to help what was called 
the mother-country, whenever it was in any distress. 
The same gods, it was believed, watched over them 
both. And in order to remind themselves that they 
were still one people, the colonies, when they left 
their native place, were accustomed to carry with 
them a portion of a fire which the Greeks kept burn- 
ing in the council hall of the city, where the magis- 
trates met ; and which was therefore considered 
sacred. This fire they managed to keep lighted, 
whilst they were on their voyage or journey, and 
then it was used for the same purpose as before in 
their new home. It was also a rule amongst them, 
that if the colonies, in their turn, wished to found 
new cities in distant countries, the leader of the ex- 
pedition was always to be brought from the mother 
country. These colonies greatly increased the 
power of the Greeks, but they also frequently brought 
them into difficulties. As they were settled in 
foreign countries, the monarchs of those countries 
often interfered with them, and this brought on a 
war with the parent state. It would not be easy 
for us to have cities scattered about as the Greeks 
had ; but in those days, many of the lands near 
Greece were only inhabited by barbarous tribes, 
and it was not difficult to land on their coasts and 
build a town. The difficulty was to keep these 
towns afterwards, when the tribes were more civi- 
lised and united under one king. 

But that which more than anything else made 



22 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the states look upon themselves as one nation, was 
their custom of all meeting together, at stated times, 
to amuse themselves with public games. 

There were four different kinds of these public ■ 
games : the Olympic, the Pythian, the Isthmian, 
and the Nemean. The Olympic were the most 
celebrated ; indeed the fame of them spread all 
over the world. 

The place where these games were held was a 
lovely valley, shut in by mountains, and by two 
rivers, in the state of Elis, in Peloponnesus. For 
ages and ages this spot was considered sacred. The 
Greeks thought that it was peculiarly blessed by 
Zeus, the chief of their gods ; and the people of 
Elis were allowed to live quietly in times of war, 
and to enjoy themselves in their homes without 
being disturbed, because no one liked to interfere 
with a state in which there was a place so sacred as 
Olympia. 

There is little now to be seen in the plain of 
Olympia but a few ruins of brick. The mountains 
stand as they did in the old times, and trees flourish 
upon them year after year, and the rivers flow in 
the same tracks ; but all the great buildings and 
statues have crumbled to dust, and the valley is 
silent and deserted. 

It was very different in the ancient days when 
the Greeks were a great people. Every fourth 
year, when the summer days were long, and the 
moon was bright and full, crowds from all the 
various Grecian states, and from the colonies in 
Europe, Africa, and Asia, hastened to Olympia to 
amuse themselves with the public games, and do 
honour to the great Olympian Zeus. The temple 
of the god stood in the middle of the sacred ground. 
It was a beautiful building, ornamented on the out- 
side with carved figures of sculpture, for which the 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 23 

Greeks were always famous. A golden statue of 
Victory was placed in front, and a golden vase at 
each end of the roof. Beneath the statue hung a 
shield likewise of gold. Within the temple was the 
dgure of the god, the work of one of the most famous 
sculptors that ever lived. It was of an enormous 
size, and made of ivory and gold ; the ivory was 
coloured so as to look like flesh. Precious stones, 
and painting, and gold adorned not only the figure 
of the gud but the throne on which he sat ; and 
the whole looked so dazzling and wonderful, that 
the Greeks forgot that the image was made by the 
hands of a human being, and they worshipped it. 
There were several buildings at Olympia besides 
the temple : in one the victors in the games dined ; 
in another the regulations relating to the games were 
made ; and others contained treasures — offerings, 
from the various states. 

But the public games brought people to Olym- 
pia, as well as the respect paid to Zeus. The Greeks 
indeed thought that they showed their devotion to 
the god by going to these festivals which were de- 
dicated to him ; and the greatest honour which any 
one could have was to gain the prize on such occa- 
sions. There were chariot races, and horse races, 
and foot races, and boxing and wrestling matches, 
all of which seem to us of very little importance, 
but which the Giceks thought of great consequence. 
And yet the prize wnich was given was only a gar- 
land made of the leaves of the wild olive. For the 
Greeks cared more for nonour than riches, — and no 
one who had gained the olwe wreath at the Olympic 
games would have parted with it for thousands of 
pounds. 

It was the same at the Pythian, and Isthmian, 
and Nemean games. Persons were very anxious 



24 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

to gain the prizes, but only because it was an honour 
to do so. 

The Pythian games were held near Delphi, in 
honour of a victory supposed to have been gained 
by the god Apollo over a great serpent. The prize 
given was a wreath of laurel. 

The Isthmian games were so named because 
they were celebrated p on the Isthmus of Corinth. 
They were held in honour of Poseidon (called Nep- 
tune by the Romans), the god of the sea, and the 
prize was a wreath of pine leaves. 

St. Paul makes mention of these games in his 
first epistle to the Corinthians ; where he tells the 
early Christians who lived in the City of Corinth, 
that they were to strive as hard to obtain heaven, 
as other persons did to obtain the fading crown or 
wreath of the public games. 

The prize of the Nemean games was a wreath 
of parsley. These games were celebrated on the 
plains of Nemea, in the state of Argolis, in Pelo- 
ponnesus. They were in honour of Hercules, who 
was said to have killed a savage lion in a forest 
near. 

After some time the Greeks used to date their 
history from the years when the Olympic games 
were celebrated. They began to do this about the 
year b.c. 776, and every four years they called an 
Olympiad. In speaking, therefore, of any particular 
event, instead of saying as we might, — it happened 
so many years after the world was created, or so 
many years before the birth of our Lord, they 
would say — it happened in the first, second, or third 
year of such an Olympiad. 



HISTORY OP GREECE. 25 



CHAPTER III. 

THE LAWS OF LYCURGUS. 
b. o. 884. 

T would be very confusing to give an account of 
ach of the Grecian states separately, neither is it 
necessary, since there were two, which were always 
considered the chief; and in learning their history 
we at the same time learn the principal events 
which took place in the others. 

It may, however, be desirable to give a list of 
the chief divisions of Greece, as it will make the 
history which follows more clear. In Peloponnesus, 
or Southern Greece, were Laconia, Messenia, Elis, 
Arcadia, Argolis, Corinth, Sicyon, and Achaia. 

In Greece Proper, or Northern Greece, were 
Attica, Megaris, Boeotia, Phocis, iEtolia, Locris, 
Doris, Acarnania, and Thessaly. We shall perhaps 
gain a better idea of the country by remembering 
that these divisions were not larger than many of 
our English counties. The small size of Greece is 
indeed very remarkable. The whole country was 
not more than 250 miles in length, and 180 in 
breadth. 

A division sometimes consisted of several small 
states, so independent of each other that they 
would often make peace or war by themselves ; and 
yet united together, in other respects, and governed 
by the same magistrates. There were, for instance, 
fourteen little states in Boeotia, which were all gov- 
erned by a number of magistrates, called Boeotarchs, 
chosen from all the states every year. Thebes was 
the principal of these states, and the others were 
considered its subjects. But this arrangement 
naturally caused a great deal of disturbance. The 
3 



26 HISTORY OF GREECE, 

little states still thought themselves free, and when- 
ever they chose they made an alliance with the 
people of some distant city or district, and then 
the inhabitants of the chief state became very 
angry, and often war was the consequence. It is 
necessary also to remember that the chief state is 
often spoken of by itself, when, in fact, the little 
states were joined with it. In the same way as we 
often now talk of England's making war or peace, 
when we mean not England alone, but Scotland, 
Ireland, and Wales also. This is particularly the 
case in regard to Thebes. 

The principal events of Grecian history are, 
however, connected with the two great cities of 
Athens and Sparta. Sparta was the capital of the 
state of Laconia in Peloponnesus. The Heracleids 
or Dorians settled themselves there, when first 
they invaded Peloponnesus ; and though they al- 
lowed the people who had lived in the country be- 
fore they came to remain, yet they made them pay 
tribute, and would not let them help in the govern- 
ment. In fact the Dorians treated the people they 
had conquered very much in the same way as the 
Normans, under William the Conqueror, treated 
the Anglo-Saxons, after the battle of Hastings. 

The Dorians who lived in the city were called 
Spartans, and the conquered people, Lacedaemoni- 
ans. But in speaking of them — especially in de- 
scribing the battle which they fought — they are 
often called by one name — Spartans. The true 
Spartans always, however, considered themselves 
superior to the Lacedaemonians. They were in 
fact the nobles of the country. There was one 
town in Laconia which would not yield to the Spar- 
tans. This was Helos, a place near the sea-coast. 
The inhabitants, it is said, tried very much to keep 
their freed )m ; but endeavours were of no use ; and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 27 

they were not only conquered like the rest of the 
inhabitants of Laconia, but were made slaves for 
ever. 

The Spartans were hard masters, and though 
probably they were not as cruel to the Helots as 
some writers have declared, yet we know that many 
of the laws respecting these slaves were very se- 
vere. A Helot was forced to live always in the 
same place, and to wear a peculiar dress, and was 
kept so distinct from the Spartans that he did not 
dare even to sing a Spartan song. 

The Helots, in consequence of these hardships, 
were often inclined to rebel, and the Spartans were 
always suspecting them. It has been asserted that 
every year a number of young Spartans were or- 
dered to go about the country secretly, with dag- 
gers, and kill every Helot who was remarkable for 
cleverness or strength, or was likely to make a dis- 
turbance in the country. On one occasion, when 
the Spartans were afraid that the Helots intended 
to rebel, they sent for the bravest and best, who 
had distinguished themselves in war, pretending 
that they were going to reward them by making 
them free ; and when two thousand had assembled, 
full of joy and gratitude, the cruel Spartans caused 
them all to be killed. 

The Spartans indeed were always a severe, de- 
termined people, having customs and manners which 
made them in many ways unlike other nations ; and 
as their country was shut in by mountains, they 
lived a good deal to themselves, and became too 
proud of their own laws and government to have 
any wish to improve them. 

The person who is supposed to have quite fixed 
the peculiar habits of the Spartans was Lycurgus, 
the younger son of a Spartan king, named Euno- 
mus. Lycurgus is said to have lived about 900 



28 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

years before the birth of our Blessed Saviour, about 
the same time that king Jehoshaphat was reigning 
in Judea. Polydectes, the elder son of Eunomus, 
came to the throne after his father, and died before 
a child which he was expecting was actually born 
to him ; so that it seemed as if Lycurgus had a 
claim to succeed. But Lycurgus was too honoura- 
ble to take possession of any dignity that might 
not strictly be his. He therefore told the queen, 
his brother's widow, that if, when her child was 
born, it should be a boy, he would not attempt to 
take the crown for himself, but would only be guar- 
dian to the little infant, until he should be old 
enough to rule for himself. One evening as he 
was sitting at supper with the magistrates of the 
city, some messengers came to him, bringing with 
them a little prince, just born. Lycurgus did not 
show the least annoyance, but taking the baby in 
his arms, he laid him in the seat set apart for the 
king, and turning to the persons present, exclaim- 
ed : " Spartans ! a king is born to us." Then, to 
show how truly glad he was himself, and how much 
the people ought to rejoice, he gave to the infant 
the name of " Charilaus," or " People's joy." 

But Lycurgus was not rewarded for his right 
conduct as he deserved. The queen could not bear 
him, and in order to make the people dislike him, 
pretended that he wished to murder the little king. 
Lycurgus did not try to defend himself, but thought 
it best to go away, in order to put a stop to the evil 
reports which were set on foot. He therefore left 
Sparta, intending to visit foreign countries, and en- 
quire into their laws and customs, so that he might 
be able in after years to improve those of his own 
nation. He is said to have gone to the Island of 
Crete first. The Cretans were, like the Spartans, 
a Dorian race, and were famous for their wise gov- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 29 

ernment ; and Lycurgus is supposed to have learnt 
a great deal from them. From Crete he went to 
Asia-Minor and Egypt ; and when at last he had 
gained the knowledge he wished, he prepared to go 
back to his own country, w r here his friends were 
very anxious to see him, as everything had gone 
wrong during his absence, because king Charilaus 
did not know how to govern properly. Having a 
great reverence for the gods, Lycurgus resolved, 
before he returned to Sparta, to go to Delphi, and 
ask of the Oracle whether his wish of making bet- 
ter laws for Sparta was wise, and whether he was 
the proper person to undertake such a task. The 
priestess at Delphi praised him excessively, and 
told him that he was more like a god than a man, 
and Lycurgus went away quite satisfied that his in- 
tentions w T ould be blest. 

On his arrival at Sparta, he began at once to 
carry out his plans. He went to some of the prin- 
cipal persons in the city, and informed them that 
he was wishing to make some alteration in the laws, 
and asked them to help him. Many promised that 
they would ; and when the day was fixed on which 
he was to propose the changes to the people, Ly- 
curgus begged thirty of his friends to arm them- 
selves and station themselves in the market place, so 
that if any disturbance were made they might be 
near to aid him. 

King Charilaus found out what was going on, 
and being much alarmed, fled to a temple for safety; 
but he was soon persuaded to come back, and give 
his own consent to the plan which his uncle Lycur- 
gus had formed. 

It took some time to arrange everything pro- 
perly, and many persons hated Lycurgus, and did 
all they could to annoy him, and stop what he was 
doing; but he went on steadily, inquiring into 



30 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

wrong customs, and putting an end to them ; and 
making new and wise laws ; and at length he had 
the great satisfaction of seeing the country improv 
ing and the people happier. Then he had gained 
his chief wish, and as he was determined, if possi- 
ble, to prevent the Spartans from ever returning 
again to their bad laws, he one day assembled the 
king and all the chief magistrates, and told them 
that he was obliged to go away from the city for a 
little time, and therefore begged they would take 
an oath to observe the new laws till he came back. 

No one liked to refuse, and Lycurgus once more 
left Sparta. Again he journeyed to Delphi, and 
this time the question which he asked was, whether 
the laws that he had framed would make the peo- 
ple happy. He was told that there was nothing 
wanting to them, and that Sparta would flourish as 
long as they were observed. Lycurgus sent back 
this answer to his fellow-countrymen ; but he never 
returned to them himself; and wandered in other 
lands till his death. The Spartans therefore were 
still bound by their oath. They kept the laws, and 
soon learnt to like them ; and as years went by, 
and they knew that Lycurgus must be dead, they 
honoured him as a god. 

It is usual to call the Spartan laws the laws of 
Lycurgus, but it must not be thought that they 
were all framed by him. No doubt he made a 
great many of them; but some must have been only 
brought into use again, after having been forgotten, 
for we find that they were common in other places 
besides Sparta, where the Dorians settled. 

One of the most remarkable things in the way 
the Spartans were governed was, that they had 
always two kings, who were descended from two of 
the descendants of Hercules. Their kings, how- 
ever, had not much more power than all chief ma- 



' HISTORY OF GREECE. 3 i 

gistrates generally have. They could not make laws 
by themselves, but were obliged to consult a council 
or senate, chosen by the people, and composed of 
twenty-eight persons who had reached the age of 
sixty. 

When a law was to be made, the kings and the 
senate met together, to decide whether it would be 
wise to propose it to the people. If they agreed 
that it was, they brought forward the subject at a 
public meeting, which was held every month, in the 
open air, in a place outside the city. All Spartans 
who were thirty years old, might attend this meet- 
ing. They were not allowed to discuss the law 
which was to be made, but were only asked if they 
would consent to it. If they did. the law was con- 
sidered as settled. 

But the persons who really had the chief power 
in Sparta were five magistrates, called Ephors. 
They were chosen by the people, and were so much 
looked up to, that even the kings were obliged to 
appear before them if any complaint was made 
against them. 

The habits of living of the Spartans were very 
different from any we are accustomed to. They 
did not care for luxury or grandeur, and even the 
kings did not dress better or have better dinners 
than the rest of the people. 

All the men dined together in public ; the two 
kings as well as their subjects, Fifteen persons 
sat down at one table, and each person was obliged 
to bring a certain quantity of provisions every 
month. The little boys used to sit on stools, at 
their fathers' feet ; but the elder boys had tables 
for themselves. 

They were not at all particular about their food, 
and never had rich dishes, but were contented gen- 
erally with what they called black broth, which is 



32 HISTORY OF GREECE. " 

said to have had a very disagreeable taste, together 
with cheese and figs. 

It was the great wish of the Spartans to be 
brave and hardy themselves, and to bring up their 
children to be the same. And it is said that when 
a sickly child was born, the chief persons of the 
family to which it belonged would take it from its 
mother, and send it away to some caverns in a 
mountain, where the poor little infant was left to 
die. The healthy children remained with their pa- 
rents. When the little boys were seven years old 
they were sent to school, not to learn reading and 
writing as children do now, but to be taught how to 
fight and wrestle, and understand every thing which 
might be of use when they went to war. In order 
to make them hardy they wore the same kind of 
clothes both in winter and summer ; their beds 
were made of reeds ; and now and then they were 
obliged to go without any dinner, and were beaten, 
not because they had done wrong, but in order to 
teach them how to bear pain. It was indeed 
thought such a noble thing to endure suffering 
silently, that the bravest boys used to take a pride 
in standing upon the altar in one of the temples 
and allowing themselves to be lashed so dreadfully, 
that at times some of them died ; yet even in these 
cases they often expired without uttering a groan. 

There was another custom which appears strange 
to us. but which the Spartans approved, because 
they thought that it trained their children to be 
quick and clever. They used now and then to 
order the boys to go and steal whatever they could 
find in the fields or houses of their neighbours ; 
and if the child managed well, and took away what 
he wanted, he was praised for it ; but if he failed 
he was punished. 

This was considered very different from com- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 33 

mon stealing, but it certainly must have taught 
the children to be cunning. 

After being accustomed to this severe life from 
childhood, the Spartans, it may easily be supposed, 
cared very little for the hardships of war. In fact 
they liked war better than peace ; and when a young 
Spartan knew that a battle was to take place, he 
dressed himself as gaily, and looked as cheerful 
and happy as if he was going to a great entertain- 
ment. Even the women wished nothing more for 
their husbands or children than that they should be 
good soldiers : and a Spartan mother is said to have 
given her son his shield, as he was setting forth for 
battle, telling him that he was either to bring it 
home himself, or to be borne upon it dead. The 
idea of running away never seems to have entered 
their minds. 

One of the worst things we know about the 
Spartans is that they were very fond of money, and 
were often tempted to behave dishonourably, if they 
were offered a reward. This is particularly extra- 
ordinary, because they were not allowed to coin 
gold or silver, but were obliged to use iron bars for 
money ; so that they could never have a great deal 
at a time, as it would have been very inconvenient. 
Their lands were divided into shares, which were 
given to different families. The best shares be- 
longed to the Spartans, and the others were left for 
the Lacedaemonians. 



34 HISTORY OF GREECE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE FIRST MESSSENIAN WAR. 
15. o. 743. 

As the Spartans were so well trained for war, they 
were not likely to remain for any length of time 
without finding some cause for quarrelling with 
their neighbours. The first dispute we know of, 
which was of much consequence, was with the Mes- 
senians. 

Messenia was a state close to Laconia, and it 
had been peopled in the same way by the Dorians. 
But fhe laws and customs were not entirely like 
those of Sparta, and the inhabitants were more 
peaceably inclined. The country was very fertile 
and pleasant. It had many streams and woody 
valleys, and plains where the flocks and herds 
might feed, and the hills were not as high as those 
in Laconia, so that the sun shone brightly upon the 
land, and ripened the fruits, and caused the trees 
and shrubs to flourish. All these advantages made 
the Spartans wish to have it for their own. Two or 
three different reasons have been given for the first 
beginning of this war ; and it is certain that the 
Spartans and Messenians disliked each other some 
time before they actually took up arms ; but the 
circumstances which at last caused the war to com- 
mence were the following : — 

A rich Messenian, whose name was Polychares, 
possessed some herds of cattle, which he sent to 
graze on lands that belonged to a Spartan ; making 
an agreement with the Spartan to let him have a 
share in the profits of the cows. The Spartan sold 
the cows, and then told Polychares that they had 
been carried off by pirates. Polychares, however, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 35 

found out the truth, and the Spartan being very 
much frightened, entreated to be forgiven, and 
promised to pay as much money as the cows were 
worth ; only, he said, the son of Polychares must go 
with him to fetch it. Polychares did not think that 
any harm was intended, and allowed his son to go ; 
but they had no sooner left Messenia, and entered 
Laconia, than the wicked Spartan turned upon the 
poor young man and killed him. Polychares was 
exceedingly angry, and very unhappy when the 
news reached him. He went to Sparta and begged 
that the murderer might be punished ; but the 
kings and the ephors would not listen to him ; and 
Polychares then resolving to revenge himself, way- 
laid the persons who crossed the borders of the two 
countries, and killed every Spartan who came in 
his way. This was very dreadful, and the Spartans 
could not allow it to go on. They declared that 
Polychares must be given up to them ; but the 
Messenians would not consent, and after long dis- 
putes war broke out. 

The real object of the Spartans in beginning this 
war was soon made clear. They bound themselves 
by a solemn oath never to end it, until the lands of 
the Messenians became their own ; and then, with- 
out giving any warning of their plans, marched 
across the border when it was dark night, entered 
one of the Messenian towns, and killed the inhabit- 
ants when they were lying quietly asleep in their 
beds. 

This cruel act roused the spirit of the Messe- 
nians to the utmost. They saw that the Spartans 
were determined to conquer them, and did all they 
could to defend themselves. But they had never 
been taught to fight as well as the Spartans, and 
though they carried on the war year after year, 
their case became gradually hopeless. The far- 



36 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

mers and labourers did not care to till the ground, 
when the Spartans might come and carry away 
every thing they possessed ; and in consequence 
every one suffered from hunger and dreadful ill- 
ness, besides the dangers of the battles. 

At last, when they were nearly in despair, they 
determined to shut themselves up in Ithome, a town 
which was built on the top of a very steep hiil, from 
whence they thought they might watch all that the 
Spartans did, and prevent them from advancing fur- 
ther into the country. They even talked of build- 
ing a new town there, because the old one was not 
large enough to hold all the persons who wished to 
settle in it. But before beginning this work they 
sent to the Oracle at Delphi, to know what they 
were to do in order to succeed in defending them- 
selves from the Spartans. The answer declared 
that a sacrifice must be offered to the gods, of a 
young maiden belonging to the royal family, who 
was to be chosen by lot. If the lot should fall upon 
a wrong person, one, for instance, who was not of 
the royal family, another maiden was to bs offered 
willingly by her relations. The lot did fall wrong- 
ly, or at least the soothsayer declared it did, and 
then Aristodemus, a prince of the royal house, came 
forward of his own accord, and said that his daugh- 
ter should die. She was a young girl just engaged 
to be married, and her intended husband was over- 
come with horror at the thought of losing her. In 
order to save her he pretended that the gods would 
not be satisfied, even if she were sacrificed, because 
they required a good person as an offering, and he 
knew her to have been wicked. 

This accusation enraged Aristodejnus beyond 
imagination ; and, seizing his weapon, he killed his 
daughter with his own hands. 

The soothsayer still asserted that the god would 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 37 

not be contented. The young maiden they said had 
been murdered, and not offered as a sacrifice. The 
Messenian king, however, interfered, and persuaded 
the people that all had been done which was neces- 
sary, and they prepared to carry on the war with 
fresh hope. The Spartans were frightened when 
they heard of the sacrifice which the Messenians 
had made, and feared that the gods would no longer 
be on their side, but as the war went on the Messe- 
nians still lost ground. Their king was killed in 
battle, and Aristodemus was chosen in his stead. 
The soothsayers warned the people, that because 
he had murdered his daughter, he would not be ap- 
proved by the gods, but he was so good and brave 
that every one liked him, and for some time after 
he came to the throne, there seemed a prospect that 
the Messenians might be able to drive away their 
enemies. Aristodemus, however, felt a doubt of 
this himself, for he heard of wonderful things being 
seen and heard, which he thought showed that the 
gods were against him. At last he had a horrible 
dream. He imagined that his daughter appeared 
to him, dressed in black, and showed him the wound 
by which he had killed her ; and then taking away 
the armour which he wore, clothed him with a white 
robe, and put a golden crown upon his head. This 
was the dress in which the kings of Messenia were 
prepared for burial. Aristodemus believed that 
the dream was sent from heaven, and that it fore- 
told his own death and the ruin of his country ; 
and in bitter sorrow, thinking that his life could 
be of no use, he went to the place where his child 
was buried, and killed himself upon her grave. 

The war lasted but a short time after Aristo- 
demus was dead. The Messenians, indeed, chose 
another chief, but they were quite unable to defend 
themselves any longer, and after the war had con- 
4 



38 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

tinned for twenty years, they fled from the town of 
Ithome. and gave np their beautiful country to their 
enemies. 

The Spartans treated them very hardly ; indeed 
they were oppressed as much as the Helots, and 
when a Spartan king died, both the 3Iessenians 
and the Helots were obliged to appear with their 
wives as mourners at his funeral. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE SECOND MESSENIAN WAR 

b. c. G8o. 

Thirty-eight years passed after the first Messenian 
war. before the people of Messenia tried to free 
themselves from the Spartans ; for it was very dim- 
cult to begin a rebellion, because the Spartans were 
so powerful. There were, however, two neighbour- 
ing states, Argos and Arcadia, which were willing 
to help them. The Spartans had long been ene- 
mies of the Argives, and had conquered part of 
their country : and in consequence, the Argives 
were very willing to assist the Messenians and Ar- 
cadians in a war against the Spartans. The peo- 
ple of Elis. too, were inclined to join with them, so 
that the Spartans had a great many enemies to 
fight against. 

At this time, b. c. 685, there lived in 3Iessenia 
a brave prince of the ancient royal family, named 
Aristomenes. He had loDg grieved for the hard- 
ness which his fellow-countrymen suffered from the 
Spartans, and when he found that they could have 
help from the neighbouring states, he resolved at 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 39 

once to rouse the people and begin the war. A 
battle was fought in which Aristomenes distin- 
guished himself extremely, and the Messenians 
offered to make him their king ; but he refused, 
for he had no wishes for his own glory ; his only 
thought was how to save others. He consented, 
however, to be the chief general. 

The great object of Aristomenes now was to 
raise the hopes of the Messenians ; and, in order to 
give them what they would consider a happy omen, 
he crossed by night a mountain which divided 
Laconia from Messenia, and entering the city of 
Sparta, he went secretly to the temple of the god- 
dess Athene (or Minerva), and fixed against the 
wall a shield, on which was engraved : " Aristo- 
menes, to the goddess, from the Spartans." This 
was meant as a triumph over the Spartans. He 
had taken the shield from a Spartan in battle, and 
now he sent it back as a present to the goddess. 

The Spartans soon found out that their enemies 
were very powerful ; and they sent to the Oracle 
at Delphi for counsel. The reply of the Oracle 
was, that they were to seek advice from the Athe- 
nians. 

The Athenians were the inhabitants of Athens, 
the capital of Attica, to the north of Peloponnesus. 
Athens was quite as famous a city as Sparta, and 
the two states were always rivals. Instead of help- 
ing the Spartans by giving them good counsel, or 
men, or money, the Athenians, it is said, sent them 
a poet named Tyrtaeus. This did not appear as if 
it would be much use at first, but in the end it 
helped the Spartans extremely ; for the songs that 
Tyrtasus made, gave them such courage, that they 
were able to fight much more bravely than perhaps 
they would otherwise have done. 

There are many strange and wonderful tales 



40 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

related by the Grecian writers of the adventures of 
Aristomenes ; and it is certain that he led the Mes- 
senians and their allies bravely to battle, and often 
gained victories over the Spartans. But, at length, 
after the war had lasted about three years, he fell, 
we are told, into the hands of his enemies, together 
with fifty of his friends. They were all carried to 
Sparta, and thrown into a deep pit. Aristomenes 
reached the bottom of the pit safely, but his un- 
fortunate companions were dashed to pieces. The 
cavern was quite dark, and its sides were so steep 
and rocky that it seemed next to impossible for 
any one to clamber up ; and when Aristomenes 
looked up he could see the sky appearing far above 
his head, showing him how deep the pit was into 
which he had been cast. For three days he remain- 
ed alone in the cavern. On the third day he heard 
a noise, as if something alive was moving about 
near him. It was a fox which had made its way 
into the pit through a passage that led up to the 
open air, and which the Spartans do not seem to 
have known anything about. Aristomenes seized 
the creature by the tail, and followed it, creeping 
as well as he could, through the narrow way by 
which it tried to escape. After some time the fox 
came to a hole. Aristomenes then let him go, and 
set himself to work to make the hole larger, and 
succeeded so well that at last, by his own hands, 
he dug a way through the ground and escaped. 

The Messenians had at this time shut themselves 
up in a strong place amongst the mountains, called 
Eira, in the same way as they had before done at 
Ithome. Aristomenes joined them as soon as he 
possibly could, and no doubt his friends were over- 
joyed to receive him in safety after all his dangers. 
His wisdom and bravery were now again of the 
greatest use to them. For eleven long years the 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 41 

Spartans besieged Eira, and still Aristomenes and 
his countrymen defended themselves ; but the day 
of destruction came at last. 

It happened that Aristomenes had received a 
wound, which prevented him from going about 
amongst his men to see that they were all keeping 
proper guard over the citadel : and the Messenian 
soldiers took advantage of this to go away from 
their posts, when they chose. One dark, stormy 
night, when it seemed as if the Spartans could not 
possibly think of making an attack, a Messenian 
soldier left his watch and went back to his home. 
His wife did not at all expect him, and during his 
absence she had allowed a Spartan herdsman to 
come and see her. The Spartan was naturally 
enough very frightened when he found that the 
Messenian was returned, and in a great hurry hid 
himself, but in such a way that he could hear all 
which the husband and wife said to each other. 
The Messenian began to tell his wife about Aristo- 
menes and his wound, and that the watch was not 
kept as strictly as usual ; and the Spartan listened 
and thought that he would make good use of the 
news. When the Messenian had finished talking, 
and left the room, the Spartan hastened from the 
house and went back to the camp to tell his general 
that he had better at once order an attack to be 
made, for that the sentinels were off their guard. 
The Spartans accordingly set forth, caring nothing 
for the dark night. They clambered up the walls, 
and entered the citadel. The Messenians were 
sleeping peacefully, when they were awakened by a 
dreadful howling of the dogs in the city ; and soon 
learnt that their enemies were within the gates. 
The night was so dark that neither the Spartans 
nor the Messenians could do much either in attack 
or defence till the morning. But when daylight 



42 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

came Aristomenes urged his people to fight despe» 
rately to the last. Even the women fought, for they 
were all in despair, and the torrents of rain, and 
the fearful flashes of lightning, and the rolling 
thunder, seemed to make their situation more ter- 
rible. They went on in this way for three days 
and nights ; but whilst the Spartans were bringing 
fresh soldiers continually into the citadel, the poor 
Messenians were dying one after the other from 
their wounds and their hunger. Aristomenes at 
last saw that he must give up. He collected his 
men together, and made them stand in the form of 
a square, with a hollow in the middle, in which he 
placed the women and children. They then went 
forward together to meet their enemies, and Aris- 
tomenes made signs to show that they wished to 
be allowed to leave the city. The Spartans not 
liking to refuse, opened a way amongst the ranks 
of their soldiers ; Aristomenes and the Messenians 
passed safely through, and leaving Eira and their 
native country to be taken possession of by the 
Spartans, set forth themselves for Arcadia. 

It must have been a sad and weary journey, but 
there was comfort for them at the end, for the Ar- 
cadians received them most kindly. Aristomenes 
attacked the Spartans many times after this, but 
all his efforts failed, and Messenia was now quite 
subject to Sparta, though an Oracle declared that 
it should not always remain so. After his warlike 
life, Aristomenes died peacefully in the house of 
his son-in-law, in the Island of Rhodes. 

Thus ended the second Messenian war, b. c. 668. 
The Spartans treated the people they had conquer- 
ed with the same severity as before, and many went 
away to other countries. Some of the descendants 
of Aristomenes, in after years passed over to Sicily, 
and took a town which they named Messene, in re* 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 43 

niembrance of their own country ; and to this day 
it is called Messina. 



CHxiPTER VI. 

THE CONSPIRACY OF CYLON AT ATHENS. 
B. c. 612. 

We must now turn to the history of Athens, a 
state which has been mentioned before as the rival 
of Sparta. The Spartans were a Dorian people ; 
the Athenians came from a race called lonians; 
and there was as great a distinction between them 
as between the French and the English, at least in 
many respects. They spoke the same language, 
indeed, but it was with another accent ; a like differ- 
ence could be discovered amongst several of the 
other Grecian states. Some were Dorian and some 
Ionian. The Dorian states usually sided with the 
Spartans, and the Ionian with the Athenians. 
Attica, of which Athens was the capital, was but a 
small state, yet in the earliest times it is said to 
have been divided into several districts, each govern- 
ed by a chief, who took the title of king. Athens 
was one of these districts, and Cecrops, a king of 
Athens, persuaded his people and those of the other 
districts to form a union or confederacy, to protect 
themselves from pirates and invaders. In after 
years the districts were united into one state, by 
Theseus, one of the early Grecian heroes, about 
whom almost as many wonderful stories are told 
as about Hercules. Theseus was the king of 
Athens, and he made his city the capital of the 
country, and it soon became of so much importance 



44 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

that the name of Athenians is used commonly for 
the inhabitants of the whole state. 

The last king of Athens was Codrus ; he wad 
king about the time that the Dorians were preparing 
to invade Peloponnesus, and the following story id 
related of hii«i : — 

On one occasion, the Dorians, it is said, came 
near Athens, and were going to attack it, but they 
were not sure of success, because it had been de- 
clared by an Oracle that they should only gain the 
victory in case of their not doing any harm to the 
Athenian king. Codrus heard what the Oracle 
had said, and. as he loved his country better than 
his own life, he disguised himself as a peasant, en- 
tered the camp of the Dorians, and managed to 
quarrel with one of the soldiers, who, becoming very 
angry, killed him. When the Athenians learnt 
that Codrus was dead, they sent to ask for his body. 
The Dorians knew directly that they could not hope 
to conquer, for the command given by the oracle 
had been broken. They withdrew therefore from 
Attica, and the Athenians, in order to show their 
gratitude by doing honour to Codrus, made a law 
that no one should ever be allowed to bear the same 
title of king again. From that time, the chief ruler 
in Athens was called Archon, instead of king. 

Only one archon at first ruled in Athens, and 
he was always chosen from among the relations of 
Codrus ; but after some time a change was made, 
and nine archons were appointed, who were taken 
from amongst the chief persons in the state, and 
held their ofhce only for a year. 

The Athenians could not have been very happy 
under the government of the archons, for the poor 
people were treated very harshly by the rich no- 
bles, who were called Eupatrids. If any poor per- 
son borrowed money which he was not able to repay, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 45 

he and his children might be made slaves. Besides, 
there were no written laws, so that the people did 
not know by what rules they were to be governed. 
At length, however, they saw the evil of this state 
of things, and Drace, one of the archons, determined 
to try and improve it. He framed a set of laws 
which he thought would be useful, but his notions 
were so very hard and strict, that it was found to 
be quite impossible to act up to them. Almost 
every offence, according to Draco's laws, was to be 
punished by death ; because, he said, the least of- 
fence deserved death, and yet he could not find any 
thing worse for the greatest crime. 

The Athenians, finding that Draco's laws did 
not help them, went on for several years in the 
same way as before ; but the disorder and confu- 
sion in the state daily increased. 

At length one of the nobles, named Cylon, 
formed a plot for taking the government into his 
own hands, and making himself the king, or, — as 
the chief ruler of a state was in those days often 
called, — the tyrant of Athens. For the word tyrant 
did not then mean a cruel hard-hearted person, but 
only a chief who governed according to his own will. 

Cylon's plot was discovered, and he himself was 
obliged to flee away. Some cf his friends, finding 
themselves in danger of being taken, sought refuge 
in the temple of Athene. Athene was the tutelary 
goddess of the Athenians, and there were several 
temples to her honour in the Acropolis, or the cita- 
del of Athens. It was to one of these temples that 
Cylon's friends fled for safety ; for whilst they were 
there, it would have been considered a profane act 
to do them any injury. The archons finding what 
they had done, sent them a message to say that if 
they would give themselves up they should not be 
killed. 



46 HISTORY OF GREECE, 

This message induced Cylon's friends to leave 
the temple, but they were probably a little in doubt 
whether the archons would keep their word ; for in 
order that they might be considered still under the 
protection of the goddess, they fastened a string to 
her statue, and held it in their hands as they came 
into the midst of their enemies. The string broke 
as they were passing a temple dedicated to the 
Eumenicles, or furies ; and Megacles, one of the 
archons, of the family of the Alcmseonids, declared 
it was a sign that the goddess Athene had given 
them up. The rest of the archons agreed with 
him, and instantly the unfortunate men were seized 
and killed. 

This act of the archons was much condemned 
by many of the Athenians. It was consideied an 
insult to the goddess, and it was declared that she 
would take vengeance upon the city, unless the 
archons were punished. There were great dis- 
putes upon the subject, and at length thirty of the 
Alcnigeonids were sentenced to exile, and the bones 
of those who had died before the sentence was 
passed, were dug up and cast out of the land. 
Then it was hoped the goddess might be appeased : 
but in the after history of Greece, we shall hear 
continually of the stain which remained on the 
family of the Alcmasonids, and the evils which fol- 
lowed their cruel action. 



CHAPTER VII. 

SOLON GIVES LAWS TO ATHENS. 
b. o. 594. 

Whilst the Athenians were thus in confusion an6 
discord, the neighbouring states took advantage of 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 47 

their condition, and attacked and plundered their 
possessions. The island of Salamis, which once be- 
longed to them, had been taken from them by the 
people of Megara ; and the power of the Athenians 
was so broken down by their divisions that they 
had never been able to succeed in retaking it, 
They were so weary at last of making the attempt, 
and so provoked at constantly losing men and 
money without gaining any advantages, that a law 
was passed forbidding any person, on pain of death, 
even to propose that another endeavour should be 
made to recover Salamis. The people in general 
agreed to this law readily, but there was one person 
who was very much ashamed of it, and thought it a 
disgrace to his country. This was Solon, an Athe- 
nian noble, and one of the descendants of Codrus. 
Salamis was his native place, and he could not bear 
to think that it should belong to the Megarians ; 
yet, as the law was made, he did not dare openly to 
advise any thing against it. As, however, he was 
very clever, he set himself to work to write a poem 
upon the loss of Salamis, and when it was finished 
he ran into the market place, pretending he was 
mad, and began to repeat it. The Athenians, who 
were always easily excited by any thing strange, 
gathered about him to listen. Solon went on re- 
citing his poem, declaring, in a strange wild way, 
that it was a shame to let such a lovely island re- 
main in the hands of their enemies, and by degrees 
the people came round to his notions, and loudly 
protested that the law should be done away with, 
and they would go to war. 

Solon was made their general, and by his skill 
Salamis was retaken. But, as the Megarians after 
a time conquered it again, it was agreed that the 
Lacedaemonians should decide which it should 
belong to. Five judges were sent from Sparta to 



48 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

settle the question. Solon was the person who 
spoke for his countrymen, and all he said was so 
convincing that the judges, after proper considera- 
tion, determined that Salamis was to belong to the 
Athenians. 

Solon was now looked up to as the chief person 
in the state, and as he had travelled a great deal, 
and was well acquainted with the laws and customs 
of other countries, he was considered able to put 
an end to the disturbances of the country, by fram- 
ing good laws for the government of the people. 
Solon did not like, however, to begin such a task 
by himself. He wished to improve the habits of 
the people, and to give them better notions of reli- 
gion than they had before, and he therefore sent for 
Epimenides, the Cretan, to assist him in instruct- 
ing and reforming them. 

Epimenides was a very wise man, and was sup- 
posed for that reason to be taught by the gods, It 
was said of him, that when he was a little boy, his 
father one day sent him into the country to bring 
home some sheep, and that Epimenides being very 
hot and tired, and seeing a cool cave by the way- 
side, went into it and lay down to rest. After a 
little while he fell asleep, and when he woke up 
again, he of course supposed that it was time for 
him to continue his journey. When he began to 
look about him, however, he observed that every 
thing he saw was very much altered ; the country 
looked different, and the people he met were not 
at all what he expected ; and at last he found out 
that he had been asleep for fifty years, instead of a 
few hours. This of course is a very untrue story, 
but it shows that people imagined Epimenides to 
be unlike common persons. He knew a great deal 
about herbs and plants, and how to cure diseases, 
und he was very particular in attending to the wor- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 49 

ship of the gods. He wrote poetry also, and was 
supposed to be able to foretell what was going to 
happen ; and it is he whom St. Paul mentions in 
the epistle to Titus, bishop of Crete, when he de- 
clares that " one of themselves, even a prophet of 
their own, said : i the Cretans are always liars, evil 
beasts, slow bellies.' "* 

From all this we can understand how anxious 
Solon must have been to have the assistance of 
Epimenides, when he proposed to reform the reli- 
gion and the laws of Athens. And yet. — to show 
how little even the wisest heathens understood of 
true religion — we are told that Epimenides, when 
he arrived at Athens, allowed a human sacrifice to 
be offered, in order to make atonement for the 
crime committed by Megacles, the Alcmseonid. 

After soothing the fears of the Athenians, by 
telling them what they were to do to appease the 
gods, Epimenides gave them further instruction as 
to some of their religious ceremonies, and then re- 
turned to Crete ; refusing to receive any honours 
or gifts, except a branch from the sacred olive 
tree, which was believed to have been planted on 
the Acropolis by the goddess Athene. 

Solon's work was now to begin, and the changes 
he made were so wisely ordered, that they contin- 
ued a blessing to the people for years afterwards. 
The rich were no longer allowed to oppress the 
poor, or sell them as slaves, when they could not 
pay their debts. The laws of Draco were done 
away with, except those which concerned murder 
and blood-shedding; persons who had been sent 
into exils were recalled, — the Alcmaeonids amongst 
them ; and the citizens were divided into four 
classes, according to their rank and wealth, and 

* Titus L 12. 



50 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

those who were the richest were obliged to pay the 
most towards the government. 

The power of the archons was also at this time 
very much lessened ; and there was a council form- 
ed, consisting of four hundred persons, all of whom 
were to be more than thirty years of age. The 
principal business of the council was to prepare the 
laws which required to be made, and then to bring 
them before the Assembly of the people for their 
approval. 

This Assembly of the people at Athens was not 
quite the same as at Sparta. At Sparta the peo- 
ple were only allowed to say whether or not they 
approved of the laws proposed to them ; they could 
not talk about them, or alter them ; but at Athens 
they might do both. The Assemblies were held 
every month, in a large open space called the 
Pnyx. Every man who had reached the age of 
twenty was allowed to be present and vote by 
holding up his hand ; and when any one wished to 
address the Assembly, he stood upon a pedestal 
called the Bema, and spoke from thence, so that all 
might hear him. 

Solon also appointed councils or courts to judge 
criminals, and to settle disputes. The most cele- 
brated was the court of Areopagus, which is men- 
tioned in the Bible, in the seventeenth chapter of 
the Acts of the Apostles, where it is said, that when 
St. Paul was at Athens, some of the most learned 
persons in the city " took him and brought him to 
Areopagus," and that " he stood in the midst of 
Mars' hill," which was where the court was held, 
and taught the people how they were to worship the 
true God. This court of Areopagus had existed 
before Solon's time, but he gave greater power to 
the persons who belonged to it. It was composed of 
the wisest and best persons in the state, and no one 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 51 

was allowed to "be a member of it wlio had not 
been an archon. When there was any difficulty to 
be decided in a religious question, the case used to 
be brought before the Areopagus ; which was the 
reason of the Athenians' taking St. Paul before it. 
Or if a murder had been committed, or any person 
had taken a false oath, the court of the Areopagus 
judged the cause. In fact it was the business of 
these judges to watch over the conduct of the peo- 
ple ; and they were so much respected, that even 
other states and nations used sometimes to send to 
.them to beg them to -settle disputed points. 

There was a great difference between the laws 
of Lycurgus and Solon repecting children, for So- 
lon did not think of taking boys from their parents 
till they were sixteen years old ; when they were 
obliged to go to public schools for two years. Af- 
terwards they were taught to be soldiers for two 
years more ; and they were then considered as citi- 
zens, and might have a share in the government if 
they were fitted for it. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



PISISTRATUS, TYRANT OF ATHENS. 



B.C. 560. 



When Solon had settled all that seemed necessary 
for the prosperity of Athens, we are told that he 
travelled in different countries, visiting Cyprus, 
Egypt, and Asia-Minor, and the court of Croesus, 
the rich king of Lydia ; but the account that is 
given of this part of his life cannot quite be de- 
pended upon, 



52 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

After a long time he went back to Athens, 
where he found that many troubles had arisen dur- 
ing his absence. The people had begun to quarrel, 
and had divided into three sets or parties, each of 
which wished to be chief over the other. The 
leader of one of these parties was a clever and 
brave, but very ambitious man, named Pisistratus, 
who was one of Solon's relations. 

In order to win favour, Pisistratus pretended to 
be a great friend to the poor. He was very gener- 
ous to them, and kind in his manner, and, in con- 
sequence, became a great favourite with them. But 
Solon soon discovered that all which Pisistratus 
really cared for, was to gain power for himself. 
He talked to him, and tried to persuade him to 
give up his scheme for making himself chief. But 
Pisistratus only listened for a little time, and then 
went away to follow his own will. 

One day, Pisistratus appeared in the market- 
place, in a chariot drawn by mules which had evi- 
dently been very much hurt. He himself also was 
disfigured with wounds ; and when the people came 
to inquire what had happened, he told them that, 
as he. was travelling into the country, a band of his 
enemies had fallen upon him, and tried to kill him, 
because he was the friend of the poor. 

This story was quite untruo, for Pisistratus had 
wounded himself and his mules on purpose. But 
as almost every one believed him, the people were 
very earnest that he should have a guard to protect 
him ; and they proposed that fifty persons, armed 
with clubs, should attend him wherever he went. 
Solon was the only person who ventured to oppose 
this suggestion. He saw at once, that when Pisis- 
tratus had a guard of his own, he could act in any 
way he pleased without fear of being punished, and 
he therefore tried to persuade the Athenians to 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 53 

give up the idea ; but they would not listen to him, 
and the guard was appointed. 

The consequences were just what Solon had ex- 
pected : Pisistratus made himself more and more 
powerful, and at last induced so many people to 
join him, that he was able to take possession of the 
Acropolis, and keep it for his own, as if it had been 
his castle. This was in the year b. c. 560. 

Pisistratus was now quite the master of Athens, 
for some of his enemies left the city, and those who 
remained submitted to him. 

He still paid great respect to Solon, and con- 
sulted him in cases of difficulty ; and as he seemed 
inclined to rule wisely and mercifully, Solon was 
willing to be his friend. The following year, how- 
ever, we are told that Solon died, and then Pisis- 
tratus was left without any check. 

He was not long allowed to rule in peace. 
There were many persons in Athens who hated 
him, and in a short time they joined together 
against him, and forced him to leave the city. But 
there was less peace then than there had been be- 
fore. The men who had driven Pisistratus away 
began to quarrel amongst themselves ; and for five 
years they went on fighting and disputing. At last 
Megacles, an Alcmaeonid, and the grandson of Me- 
gacles, the archon, who was exiled, sent to Pisis- 
tratus to invite him back, and to know whether, if 
help were given to him to regain his power, he 
would take the daughter of Megacles for his wife. 
Pisistratus agreed to the proposal, and Megacles 
then tried to persuade the Athenians that it was 
the will of the gods that Pisistratus should return 
to Athens. Eor this purpose, he dressed up a tall 
and beautiful woman in a suit of armour, to repre- 
sent the goddess Athene, and made her drive into 
the city in a chariot, whilst Pisistratus rode by her 



54 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

side. Two heralds went before them, proclaim 
ing that Athene was bringing back the governor. 
Whether the people really believed that this wo- 
man was a goddess, we cannot of course tell, but 
they certainly allowed Pisistratus to return quietly ; 
and soon afterwards he kept his promise, and mar- 
ried the daughter of Megacles. Still there was no 
rest for Athens. Pisistratus did not behave well 
to his wife, and Megacles was very angry in conse- 
quence. He soon turned against Pisistratus, drove 
him from the city, and obliged him to fly to the 
island of Euboea. There Pisistratus remained ten 
years, still hoping that he should get back to Athens. 
He collected money and soldiers, and sent to his 
friends to come and join him ; and, at length, when 
he thought that his army would be sufficiently pow- 
erful, he made them cross the sea, and advance close 
to Athens. His enemies came out against him, but 
he overcame them, and they fled ; and once more 
Pisistratus was made governor of Athens. 

That was the last great change which took place 
in his life. The Alcmgeonids and some other pow- 
erful families left the city, and Pisistratus was 
allowed to remain in peace. For ten more years 
he ruled gently and wisely, and then he died, and 
left his government to his three sons, Hippias, 
Hipparchus, and Thessalus. 

Pisistratus did many useful things for Athens. 
He would not allow any one to be idle, and em- 
ployed a great many of the poor in building splen- 
did temples and other public edifices. There was 
one temple, especially, dedicated to the same god 
as that at Olympia, the plan of which was so vast, 
that it was not quite finished for 700 years. This 
temple is usually known by the name of the temple 
of Jupiter Olympius. Jupiter and Zeus meant 
the same god. Jupiter was the Roman name, and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 55 

Zeus the Greek. Pisistratus also planted a shady 
garden called the Lyceum, at a short distance from 
Athens, and caused buildings to be erected in it, 
where young men might study, and practise all sorts 
of sxercises to make them strong and active. He 
was besides very fond of bocks, and is said to have 
been the first Greek who formed a regular library. 
It is supposed that he collected together the poems 
of Homer, the celebrated poet, which had before 
been scattered about in different places. 

The sons of Pisistratus appear to have been 
very like their father. They were merciful and 
gentle in their government, they took care to have 
the people properly instructed, and they gave great 
encouragement to all who were distinguished for 
talents or accomplishments. 

Under their rule Athens prospered for some 
time ; but, at length, an event happened, which 
proved the ruin of the tyrants, as they were called, 
and brought, in the end, years of misery upon 
Greece. 

At that time there were two young men in 
Athens, named Harmodius and Aristogeiton, both 
of whom Hipparchus, the tyrant, had grievously 
offended. 

Being great friends, these two young men con- 
sulted with each other as to the surest mode of re- 
venging themselves, and agreed that they would 
never rest until the power of the tyrants should be 
overthrown. 

A plot was soon formed ; for several other per- 
sons in Athens were discontented, and wished for a 
change of government. It was proposed that Hip- 
pias should first be attacked, on the occasion of a 
great festival, held yearly in honour of Athene, 
and called the Panathensea. 

The citizens were then allowed to march in a 



56 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

procession with spears and shields; and it waf 
thought when Hippias was dead, the rest of the 
conspirators, being armed, would be able to take 
advantage of the tumult which was sure to follow, 
to rid themselves of their other enemies. The 
scheme, however, did not turn out quite as was in- 
tended. The day fixed upon arrived, and Hippiaa 
wishing to assist in arranging the procession pro 
perly, went to a suburb of the city called the Ce* 
ramicus, from which it was to set out. There ho 
staid for some time giving orders. Presently a 
man, who was one of the conspirators, came up and 
began talking to him. Harmodius and Aristogeiton, 
perceiving this, were frightened ; they did not 
know what the man could be saying, and fancied he 
must be betrayirig them. Without waiting to con- 
sult with their friends, they rushed forward into 
the city, determined to revenge themselves upon 
the tyrants, whatever might be the consequence. 
Hipparchus met them in the way. They fell upon 
him and slew him. A few minutes afterwards the 
guards came up, seized Harmodius, and killed him 
upon the spot. Aristogeiton escaped through the 
crowd, but was soon retaken. 

He was put to the torture, in order to make 
him confess who were his accomplices ; and a wo- 
man named Leaena, who was supposed to know all 
his secrets, was treated in the same cruel manner, 
in the hope of forcing her to tell what she knew. 
It is said that in order to prevent herself from be- 
traying her friend in the agony of pain, she bit off 
her own tongue, and spat it in the face of Hippias, 
who was watching her torments. 

Numbers of the people were seized; for all who 
carried daggers on the day of the festival were 
known to be the friends of Harmodius and Aris- 
togeiton; as it was contrary to the laws for the 



HISTORY OF GR,EECE. 57 

citizens to have any arms on that occasion, except 
spears and shields. 

The discovery of this plot seems to have work- 
ed a great change in the disposition of Hippias ; 
or perhaps it only brought out the evil qualities 
hidden in his heart, to which before he was not 
tempted to give way. He became cruel, and sus- 
picious, and treated the Athenians hardly, making 
them pay large sums of money for taxes. We 
know very little of his youngest brother Thessalus ; 
he seems never to have come forward in public 
matters. 

Hippias no doubt felt himself unsafe amongst 
his own people, for he tried to make friends with 
foreigners ; and for this purpose gave his daughter 
as a wife to the son of the tyrant of Lampsacus, a 
city of Mysia, in Asia Minor. This tyrant was in 
great favour with the king of Persia, and Hippias 
thought probably that through his means he might 
obtain help from the Persian monarch, if he should 
need it. But the worst enemies of Hippias were the 
Alcmseonids, who, having been again banished by 
Pisistratus, were anxiously watching for an oppor- 
tunity of overthrowing the power of Hippias, and 
returning to the city themselves. 

The Alcmseonids had at that time great influ- 
ence with the Oracle of Delphi. Some years be- 
fore, the front of the temple of Delphi had been 
destroyed by fire, and the Alcmaeonids had engag- 
ed to rebuild it for a certain sum. As they wished 
to be considered liberal and generous, they spent a 
great deal more money upon it than they were 
obliged to do ; using beautiful Parian marble in- 
stead of common stone. The Greeks, who were 
very fond of the temple at Delphi, and considered 
it as belonging to them all, praised the Alcmseonids 
extremely for this conduct, and the priestess at 



58 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Delphi was very willing to favour them m any way 
possible. 

Cleisthenes was now the head of the family of 
the Alemasonids. He was a clever cunning man, 
and knew well in what way it would be best to act 
in order to obtain the restoration of his family. He 
managed to inform the priestess of Delphi of his 
wishes, and, in order to please him, whenever any 
persons came from Sparta to ask questions of the 
Oracle, the answer given always was, that it was 
their duty to make Athens free ; which of course 
meant that they were to assist in expelling Hippias 
from the city. The Spartans hearing this command 
so often, felt that they ought to attend to it. They 
had always been friends with the family of Pisis- 
tratus before, but in spite of this friendly feeling, 
they determined now to raise an army, and send it 
by sea to invade Attica. 



CHAPTER IX. 

HIPPIAS EXPELLED FROM ATHENS. 
b. c. 510. 

The interference of the Spartans in the affairs of 
Athens was but the beginning of a succession of 
changes in the government ; for Hippias was de- 
feated and obliged to leave the country ; and Cleis- 
thenes and the Alcmaeonids returned to their native 
city, and took the government upon themselves. 
This happened the very same year that the last 
king of Rome was dethroned. But as the Alcmae- 
onids had no rightful claim to be rulers over their 
fellow citizens, so the people were not content to 
obey them. Constant quarrels arose between those 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 59 

who wished the rich and the noble alone to have 
power, and those who desired that the lower classes 
should share it with them. Cleisthenes being 
elected an archon, took the side of the poor, and 
made several changes in the laws in their favour. 
Amongst other things, he introduced a custom, by 
which any man who was considered to have too 
much influence in the state might be exiled for ten 
years. This was called ostracism, because the citi- 
zens were in the habit of writing the name of the 
person they dreaded upon an oyster shell or a tile. 
Six thousand citizens were obliged to vote in order 
to pass the sentence of ostracism. They were not 
compelled to say who it was they had fixed upon, 
but they wrote the name secretly, and the person 
whose name was found to be written the oftenest 
was exiled. 

These new laws naturally caused a great many 
disputes, especially amongt the nobles, who very 
much disliked them. They sent to the Spartans to 
assist them in overthrowing Cleisthenes ; and the 
Spartans, though they had been the means of re- 
storing the Alcmaeonids, now turned against them ; 
for in reality they always hated them, and consid- 
ered them an accursed race. 

War soon broke out over the whole country ; 
for several of the other Grecian states joined with 
Sparta in attacking Athens ; and the Athenians, 
alarmed at the number of their enemies, dispatched 
ambassadors to Sardis to beg for the aid of the 
Persians. None, however, was given them, and 
they were obliged to carry on the war by them- 
selves. 

All this time Hippias had been living in Asia 
Minor, watching what was going on in Greece, and 
no doubt hoping that whilst so many changes were 
taking place, something might occur to give him an 



60 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

opportunity of returning to Athens. Thafc time 
seemed now arrived. The Spartans, bent upon the 
destruction of the Alcmaeonids, sent a message to 
Hippias, begging him to go to Sparta, and join in a 
consultation with them and their allies ; and Hip- 
pias immediately set out on his journey. 

On his arrival, the Spartans called a great meet- 
ing of deputies from the different Peloponnesian 
states which were friendly to them. In the pre- 
sence of the whole assembly they declared that 
Hippias and the Pisistratids — as the family of 
Pisistratus were named — had been wronged, and 
that the time was come when the injury which had 
been committed ought to be repaired ; and they 
summoned their allies to assist in restoring. Hippias 
to the power he had lost. 

No answer was made. The allies saw that the 
proposal was unjust; since they had no right to 
force the Athenians to accept a ruler whom they 
disliked. Yet no one at first dared openly to ob- 
ject. At length the deputy from Corinth rose up. 
He had reason to fear the power of tyrants, for 
Corinth had, like Athens, been long subject to the 
rule of one family, and the most celebrated of the 
race, who was named Periander, had brought griev- 
ous misery upon his people, by his cruelty and op- 
pression. 

The Corinthian deputy reminded the assembly 
of this fact. He told them that it would be a dis- 
grace to make the Athenians submit to a form of 
government which the Spartans themselves detest- 
ed : and he described most earnestly how wretched 
the Corinthians had been when Periander ruled 
over them. 

His speech made a great impression upon the 
other deputies. With one voice they declared that 
the proposal of the Spartans should be rejected. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 61 

and the assembly dispersed. The Spartans were 
compelled to give up their plan, and Hippias re- 
turned to Asia, feeling very angry and disappoint- 
ed ; and soon afterwards proceeded to the court of 
Darius, king of Persia, hoping to obtain there the 
help which he saw it would be vain to expect from 
the states of Greece. 

We are now coming to a time when the affairs 
of the Greeks were very much mixed up with those 
of the Persians. But before we begin a new sub- 
ject, it will perhaps be well to consider what the 
knowledge and civilisation of the Greeks was, at 
the period of their history which we have already 
reached. 

Even in these early days the Greeks showed 
such skill in drawing, painting, sculpture, and archi- 
tecture, as to excite our admiration and astonish- 
ment. Their public buildings were generally erected 
according to certain rules, called " Orders of Archi- 
tecture." The two principal orders were the Doric 
and the Ionic ; but there was another, the Corinth- 
ian, which was introduced afterwards. 

The pillars of a Doric building were almost 
without ornament. In an Ionic building the tops, 
or capitals of the pillars, were twisted like rams' 
horns ; and in a Corinthian building they were 
beautifully cut into the form of leaves. The Gre- 
cian statues were carved in marble, or moulded in 
some metal, generally brass. They were mostly 
placed as ornaments to the temples ; sometimes on 
the outside, and sometimes in the inside. Now and 
then they were made of wood overlaid with ivory 
or gold. 

With regard to their writers, the Greeks were 
as distinguished as they were in arts. Homer, 
Hesiod, Pindar, Simonides, Anacreon, Corinna. 
Sappho, and Alcseus were all celebrated poets, who 



62 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

lived before and about the time when the Persian 
wars began. Corinna was a Boeotian lady. She is 
said to have instructed Pindar, who was a Theban 
by birth ; and she was pronounced superior to him 
five times, and gained the prize for poetry at a 
public festival. 

Sappho was a native of Mitylene, in the island 
of Lesbos. She was the most celebrated woman 
of her age, and exceedingly courted and nattered. 
One of her poems, it is said, affected Solon so much, 
that he expressed an earnest desire to learn it be- 
fore he died. It is unfortunate that her writings 
were not as good as they were beautiful. She was 
a friend of the poet Alcseus, who lived in the same 
island. There is a story also told that Anacreon 
was very much in love with her, but it is not sup- 
posed to be true. 

Besides poets, there were many learned men, or 
philosophers, in those days ; persons who accus- 
tomed themselves to think a great deal upon such 
subjects as the creation of the world — why human 
beings were made to live upon the earth — what be- 
come of them after death ; with many other ques- 
tions of the kind, which must have been extremely 
perplexing to them, as they had never learnt the 
truth in all these matters from the Bible. 

Seven of these philosophers are known by the 
name of the seven wise men of Greece. Solon was 
one of them. Thales, of Miletus ; Pittacus. of Mity- 
lene ; and Bias, a native of Ionia, in Asia Minor, 
were also of the number. Who the others were is 
not quite certain. Periander, of Corinth, is some- 
times named amongst them. It may seem strange 
to hear of him as one of the seven wise men ; but 
although he was harsh and severe in his govern- 
ment, he was a very clever man, and a great en- 
courager of learning. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 63 

But the most famous of all the philosophers of 
those days was Pythagoras. He taught his fol- 
lowers to believe that their souls were immortal ; 
but he also thought that every person's soul had 
been living in some other form before it was joined 
to his body ; and he fancied that when the body 
died, that soul would again be sent to dwell in an- 
other body. This notion was called the doctrine 
of the transmigration of souls. Pythagoras was a 
native of the island of Sanios, and travelled a great 
deal in Egypt and the East, where it is supposed he 
learnt many of his notions. He afterwards went to 
live at Crotona, in Italy, amongst the Greeks who 
had settled in that country. There he formed a 
society consisting of three hundred young men, who 
lived together, and whom he instructed in all things 
which he knew himself, such as medicine, astron- 
omy, &c. He made them lead very strict lives, 
and was especially careful that they should be reli- 
gious according to his notions of religion. Pytha- 
goras was very much respected, and many persons 
were anxious to be taught by him ; but he and his 
followers meddled with the government of the 
country, and, in consequence, great disturbances 
arose, and they were obliged to leave Italy. Py- 
thagoras died soon afterwards, but his followers 
were still known by his name, and were called 
Pythagorean philosophers. 



64 HISTORY OF GREECE. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE BURNING OF SARDIS. 
b. c. 499. 

We must now turn to the wars of the Greeks and 
Persians. The kings of Persia are connected with 
many events of sacred history. We read in the 
Bible that the prophet Daniel " prospered in the 
reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Per- 
sian." So again we are told, in the book of Ezra. 
that the Lord " stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king 
of Persia, that he made a proclamation" to allow 
the Israelites, who were captives in Babylon, to re- 
turn to their own land. This Cyrus was a mighty 
and virtuous prince* one especially appointed by 
God to be the means of good to the Jews ; and 
who had been mentioned by name by the prophet 
Isaiah, nearly 200 years before he began to reign. 
The people over whom he at first ruled dwelt 
amongst the mountains near the shores of the Per- 
sian G-ulf. They were divided into different tribes, 
and for the most part were shepherds, who wandered 
from place to place, taking care of their flocks. 
The members of one family called the Ach^emenids 
were esteemed more noble than the rest, and to this 
family Cyrus belonged. The Persians had no king 
of their own before Cyrus, but were subject to the 
Medians, a people who originally inhabited the 
mountains by the south coast of the Caspian Sea, 
and who, shortly before the time of Cyrus, had con- 
quered a great portion of the ancient kingdom of 
Assyria. Near to Media was Lydia, the country 
of Croesus, the rich king, to whose court it is some- 
times supposed that Solon travelled after he had 
given laws to Athens. The extent of the kingdom, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 65 

of Lydia varied at different times. In the time of 
Croesus it was in its greatest prosperity, for he was 
one of the most powerful monarchs of his age. He 
was brother-in-law to the king of Media. The two 
countries, therefore, were likely to help each other 
in case of a war with any other nation ; and when 
their forces were united, it would not seem possible 
for a poor people like the Persians to rebel and 
overcome them. 

Still we may be quite sure that, whatever has 
been foretold by Almighty God, will certainly come 
to pass. Cyrus had been especially named as the 
king who was to be the means of setting the J ews 
free from their captivity in Babylon ; and, in due 
course of time, the event which was prophesied so 
long beforehand came to pass. The Persian moun- 
taineers being a bold, independent, spirited people, 
could not bear to be subject to the Medes, and rose 
up in arms against them, and Cyrus became their 
leader. The Medes were soon conquered, for they 
had become indolent and luxurious, and were not 
able to withstand such a hardy race as the Persians ; 
and Cyrus then was king of Media and Persia. 
He next conquered Croesus, king of Lydia, who was 
very much afraid of having such a mighty neighbour 
as Cyrus, and began the war, hoping to subdue him, 
instead of being subdued himself. The history of 
this conquest is one of the most interesting in all 
history, for Croesus had proved himself in many 
respects to be a great and noble prince ; and no one 
can help feeling sorry for him, who reads the account 
of the terrible misfortunes which befell him in his 
latter years, when his dominions and his treasures 
were taken from him, and he was made prisoner by 
Cyrus. It is said that he then remembered bitterly 
a remark made by the wise Solon, when visiting 
him at his splendid court at Sardis. 



66 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Croesus was showing Solon his ornaments, and 
displaying his riches, hoping to excite the philoso- 
pher's envy. Whilst exhibiting them, he asked So- 
lon whether he did not consider him as the happiest 
of mankind. " No," replied Solon, " I know one 
man more happy — a poor peasant of Greece, who 
has but few wants, and can supply them with his 
labour." Croesus was vexed at the reply,. and in- 
quired again, whether Solon did not at least think 
him happy, — even if he was not the most happy of 
all. " Alas I" exclaimed Solon, " what man can be 
pronounced happy before he dies !" 

In the clays of his misfortune, Croesus remem- 
bered this speech. It had been meant as a warning 
to him of the great changes which might take place 
in his lot in life ; but, at the time, he had not un- 
derstood it, for it was difficult to believe that any 
one could rise up who should be able to dethrone 
so mighty a prince. The account of this visit of 
Solon to Croesus is given by a celebrated Greek 
historian ; but it seems, upon calculation, that it 
cannot be strictly true. We must not, however, 
dwell longer upon the history of Croesus and of 
Cyrus. After conquering Media and Lydia, Cyrus 
laid siege to Babylon, and took it, and it was then 
that he fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah, and gave 
permission to the Jews to return to their own 
land. 

Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, succeeded him as 
king of the Persian empire, which was now a very 
large one. Then followed Smerdis, the magician, 
who was an impostor, and not really one of the 
Persian princes, and was only allowed to reign for 
a few months : and then came Darius Hystaspes, 
one of the royal family of the Achasmenids, though 
not directly descended from Cyrus. He, it was, 
who was reigning at the time that Hippias left 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 67 

Sparta in anger and disappointment, and determined 
to seek for help in another country. 

All this time, whilst Croesus and Cyrus, and the 
other great eastern princes, had been conquering 
each other, and forming new kingdoms, the Greeks, 
who were settled in Asia Minor, had been far from 
living in peace. 

Whoever might be the conqueror, was sure to 
invade their province ; for they were a rich people, 
dwelling in the midst of plenty and comfort, and 
every monarch in his turn was anxious to have 
them as his subjects. At one time they were very 
much under the power of Croesus ; then, when he 
was conquered by Cyrus, they became subject to 
the Persians, and so they remained when Darius 
Hystaspes ascended the throne. 

The Greeks, however, were not a people likely 
to continue quietly subject to any one ; their wish 
always was to be allowed to be free, and govern 
themselves in their own way, and, in consequence, 
there were frequent revolts and disturbances. For, 
whenever any governor of the Greek provinces was 
out of favour with his master, the king of Persia, 
it was easy for him to persuade his people that it 
would be a good thing to rebel. 

This was the case during the reign of Darius 
Hystaspes. The rebellion was caused by the follow- 
ing circumstances. Histiseus, governor of Miletus, 
the capital of Ionia, had, on one occasion, conferred 
a great favour on Darius, by preventing his being 
betrayed into the hands of his enemies, when he 
was making war upon the Scythians, a wild people 
who inhabited the country now called Southern 
Russia. Darius rewarded Histiaeus by bestowing 
upon him a district in Thrace, where there were 
rich mines of gold, and fine trees which could be 
used for ship-building. But when this was done, 



68 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the Persian king began to fear that his friend would 
become, too powerful. He sent for him to Susa, the 
capital of Persia, and told him that he must not go 
away again, as his advice was very much wanted, 
and he could be of great use in the government. 
Histiseus knew that this was merely a pretence, and 
that, in fact, he should be a prisoner ; but it would 
have been useless to refuse, and he therefore re- 
mained at Susa, whilst his brother-in-law, Arista- 
goras, was left to govern Miletus. 

Some time after this, Aristagoras undertook a 
warlike expedition with some Persians, which was 
not successful, and he was afraid of getting into 
disgrace at court in consequence. This put it into 
his mind to excite a revolt, and he began to form 
plans, and consider how the rebellion could most 
safely be managed. Whilst he was pondering upon 
the subject, a messenger arrived from Susa from 
Histigeus. The messenger was a slave ; Aristago- 
ras ordered him to be admitted into his presence, 
but when the man appeared, the only message that 
he gave was, that Histiasus desired Aristagoras to 
shave off the hair of his head and look at the skin. 
Aristagoras obeyed, and when the slave's hair was 
shaved off, there was found traced on the skin, by 
a hot iron, what Histiasus wished to say, but had 
been afraid to write or tell by word of mouth. 

The message, which was sent in such a strange 
way, was to this purpose : that Histigeus was tired 
of remaining at Susa, but was afraid to try and 
escape, and could think of no other way of freeing 
himself but that of raising a rebellion amongst the 
people of Miletus, which very probably he should 
be sent himself to quell. He therefore begged 
Aristagoras to aid him by exciting a revolt. This 
request, which exactly agreed with the plans that 
Aristagoras had been forming, of course gave him 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 69 

great encouragement, and he now determined to 
lose no time in putting his scheme into action. 

The first thing Aristagoras did was to take 
counsel with the chief persons in the Ionian cities, 
who, he believed, would be likely to help him ; and 
then, when it was thought necessary that he should 
seek assistance from some powerful state, he set 
out himself for Lacedaemon, taking with him a good 
deal of money, and a brass plate, on which a map 
of the world was traced, according to the notions 
of the wisest men in his province. 

On his arrival at Sparta, he went immediately 
to Cleomenes, one of the kings, hoping to persuade 
him that it would be a good thing for the Spartans 
to help the lonians in their rebellion. He brought 
forth the brass map, and pointed out the vast em- 
pire of Persia- ; he described the riches of the coun- 
try, how fertile the land was, and how much wealth 
was laid up at Susa. All this, he told Cleomenes, 
might one clay belong to the Spartans, if they would 
only make up their minds to assist the lonians ; for 
when once they had crossed over to Asia Minor, 
they might soon march to Susa, and make them- 
selves masters of the city and its treasures. Aris- 
tagoras having finished all he had to say, Cleomenes 
asked him to wait for three days, and he should 
then have an answer to his proposal. At the end 
of this time, Aristagoras and Cleomenes met again. 
The Spartan king was anxious to make inquiries 
before he engaged himself in such an important un- 
dertaking. " How many da} r s' journey," he asked, 
" lie between the sea and the palace at Susa V 
" The distance is a three months' march," replied 
Aristagoras, hastily, not considering how much 
Cleomenes might be startled by the idea of such a 
long journey. The next moment he saw what a 
mistake he had committed. Cleomenes broke off 



u 



70 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the conversation, gave up all thought of joining in 
the enterprise, and ordered Aristagoras to quit 
Sparta before the sun should that night set. In- 
stead of attending to the command, Aristagoras 
followed Cleomenes to his own house, taking in his 
hand an olive-branch, which was a symbol of peace, 
and a token that he had a favour to ask. Cleo- 
menes could not refuse to see a person who came to 
him so humbly, and he allowed Aristagoras to be 
admitted to the room in which he was sitting with 
his little daughter, Gorgo, a child of about eight or 
nine years of age. Aristagoras had a different 
temptation now to bring before the Spartan king. 
He offered him money : if he would consent to as- 
sist the Ionians in their revolt, he should at once 
receive a great reward. Cleomenes refused, and 
Aristagoras offered more and more. Gorgo stood 
by, unnoticed herself, but carefully watching all 
that was going on. At length, feeling quite sure 
that her father was being tempted to do something 
which his conscience told him was wrong, the little 
girl exclaimed, " Go away, father, the stranger will 
do you harm !" 

The warning came at the right moment ; Cleo- 
menes turned away from the bribe, and Aristagoras, 
without further delay, left Sparta. 

He next proceeded to Athens : there the people 
were very differently disposed from the Spartans ; 
they knew more of Persia, and were inclined 
almost without being asked, to enter into the war. 
We may remember that, a few years before, when 
the Spartans attacked Athens, and wished to expel 
the Alcmaeonids, the Athenians sent to ask for help 
from the Persians. The, person they applied to 
was Artaphernes, governor of Lydia, the brother 
of king Darius. Artaphernes promised to aid them, 
if they would consent to give earth and water to the 



HISTORY OP GREECE. 71 

king of Persia. This was the eastern way of ex« 
pressing that Athens was to become subject to 
Persia. The Athenian envoys consented, not per- 
haps quite knowing all that was meant by the de- 
mand for earth and water ; but when they went 
back to their own country, they were very much 
blamed for what they had done, and their fellow 
citizens openly declared that they would never agree 
to any thing of the kind. Artaphernes, therefore, 
gave no help, and from that time, probably, had a 
feeling of indignation against Athens. Some time 
afterwards, Hippias went to him, and begged him 
to assist in restoring him to his former power ; and 
Artaphernes willingly consented, being glad of any 
opportunity of doing what the Athenians disliked. 

It was well known at Athens what Hippias was 
aiming at ; and the Athenians, forgetting how they 
had offended Artaphernes before, despatched am- 
basssdors, to request him not to interfere in their 
affairs, by supporting their old tyrant. The only 
answer they received was, that they should be safe, 
if they would recall Hippias. 

This message had arrived just at the moment 
when Aristagoras of Miletus reached Athens. The 
Athenian people were furious against the Persians, 
and needed but little persuasion to induce them to 
join in a war against them. They agreed to send 
twenty ships to assist the Ionians in their rebellion, 
and Aristagoras returned to Miletus, well satisfied 
with his success. 

The twenty Athenian vessels set sail, accompa- 
nied by five other vessels belonging to the Ere- 
trians, the inhabitants of the chief city and district 
in the island of Euboea,who had been persuaded to 
join in the expedition. On reaching the coast of 
Asia Minor, the troops landed, and being joined by 
a good many Ionians, they hired guides, and pro- 



72 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

ceeded, all together, through a valley, called the 
yale of the Cayster, and ascended a high mountain, 
on the other side of which was Sardis, the capital 
of Lydia. 

The citadel of Sardis was very strong, but the 
houses of the town were principally made of wicker- 
work, and those which were built of brick were 
thatched with reeds. This was done because earth- 
quakes were very common in that part of the coun- 
try, and it was therefore safer to have the houses 
covered wifh light materials, which would not hurt 
any one if they were thrown down. The Greek 
soldiers stood on the top of Mount Tmolus, and 
looked down upon this rich eastern city, and then, 
like a mountain torrent, they rushed down the side 
of the hill and attacked it. Artaphernes was in 
Sardis himself, but knowing that it was useless to 
think of defending the town, he shut himself up 
with his soldiers in the citadel. The Greeks were 
in a very short time masters of the city, and 
wandered from house to house, plundering every- 
thing of value that came in their way. At last, 
one of the soldiers, in his eagerness and anger, set 
fire to a house. The flames spread in every di- 
rection. The inhabitants of Sardis, driven from 
their homes, rushed together to the market-place, 
which was built close to the river Pactolus, and 
determined to defend themselves there bravely 
whilst defence was possible. The Athenians re- 
mained in the midst of the burning city. It was 
a situation of great danger for them, conquerors 
though they were ; for help might be sent to Arta- 
phernes at any moment, from the neighbouring 
cities, and then they could not expect to escape. 
Retreat seemed their only hope, and, as quickly as 
possible, they marched out of the city, ascended 
Mount Tmolus, passed down the vale of the Cay- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 73 

fiter, and proceeded on their way to the sea-coast. 
But, before reaching it, they were overtaken by a 
great army, which had been raised as soon as the 
people of Lydia knew of their invasion. A battle 
followed, and the Greeks were defeated. Those 
amongst them who belonged to the provinces in 
\.sia fled to their own cities ; and the Athenians 
nd Eretrians got on board their ships, and sailed 
back to Greece with all speed. 

The anger of Darius, when he heard of the burn* 
ing of Sardis, surpassed all bounds. That which 
seemed mostly to irritate him was, that the action 
had been committed by a small body of unknown 
strangers from a distant land. One of the first 
questions he asked was, who were the people that 
had ventured upon so bold a deed ; and from his 
heart he prayed that he might live to punish them. 

The feeling was not allowed to die away. Each 
day, before Darius began his meal, an attendant 
was ordered to appear before him, and recall to him 
the name of the Athenians, and preparations were 
soon begun to enable him to take his revenge. 

It was necessary, however, first, to subdue the 
Greek provinces in Asia Minor. Histiseus, the 
former governor of Miletus, who had been the prime 
mover of the Ionian revolt, was now suspected by 
Darius, but he managed to clear himself, and was 
sent, as he had wished, to Ionia, to endeavour to 
quiet his rebellious people. He found, however, 
when he arrived there, that he was still an object 
of suspicion to Artaphernes, the king's brothor, who 
said to him one daj^, when speaking of the way in 
which Aristagoras had behaved, " Aristagoras drew 
the sandal on, but it was of your stitching." This 
speech frightened Histiaeus, and seeing that it would 
be useless any longer to pretend to be loyal to Da- 
rius, he went away secretly by night, and from that 
7 



74 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

time openly joined in the rebellion. The remainder 
of his history had perhaps better be told at once, 
for he met with a dreadful fate in return for his 
selfishness and treachery. He was taken prisoner 
by the Persians, and carried before Artaphernes, 
who immediately ordered him to be crucified, and 
then cut off his head, and sent it to Darius at Susa 
It is said that Darius was very sorry when he 
heard of the death of Histiseus, and was angry with 
Artaphernes in consequence ; probably he did not 
really believe how deceitfully Histiseus had behav- 
ed. Aristagoras likewise was killed in the course 
of the war. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE BATTLE OF MARATHON. 
b. c. 490. 

Six years passed after the first revolt of the Ionian 
Greeks, under Aristagoras, before they were finally 
subdued by the Persians. During that time,, very 
many lives were lost, and very great sufferings were 
endured ; and when at last Darius had made him- 
self master of the rebel cities, the evil was not at 
an end. Still the Athenians, who had assisted them, 
Were left unpunished, and the revenge of the great 
Persian monarch was ungratined. As the provinces 
in Asia Minor were conquered, he was left more 
free to turn his thoughts to the distant people who 
had offended him in Europe, and a great fleet was 
prepared and sent forth ; but a violent storm over- 
took and destroyed it ; and the land army, which 
reached Europe, and marched through Macedonia, 
was surprised by night by the people of the country, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 75 

and so many were killed, that the rest were obliged 
to retreat. 

Darius was not to be stopped by any disasters ; 
his anger against the Greeks had never been satis- 
fied, and even if he had been inclined for peace him- 
self, he would have been constantly urged to war by 
the entreaties of Hippias, the tyrant of Athens, who 
had never given up his hope of being one day re- 
stored to his country and his power. Greater pre- 
parations the next year were made by the Persians; 
and Darius, being willing to try the spirit of his 
enemies before he invaded their dominions, sent 
heralds to Athens and Eretria, and many other of 
the Grecian cities, requiring, as before, earth and 
water, in token of submission to his dominion. The 
two great states of Greece, Athens and Sparta, 
scorned the demand, and, in their rage, ordered 
the ambassadors to be put to death. The inhabit- 
ants of many of the islands yielded to it, amongst 
them the people of .ZEgina ; and this submission 
was the cause of a civil war in Greece, which was 
still going on when, in the year b. c. 490, the Per- 
sian king at length fulfilled his long intended pur- 
pose, and actually invaded Greece. 

The Persian forces were placed under the com- 
mand of his generals, Datis and Artaphernes. The 
latter was the king's nephew, the son of that Arta- 
phernes, governor of Lydia, of whom we have before 
heard. The fleet which bore the army across the 
sea, consisted of 600 triremes, or ships of war, and 
a number of other vessels, for the conveyance of the 
horses. The Greek island of Naxos, was attacked 
first, and the Persians, on their landing, burned the 
town, and carried away the people to be slaves. 
They then proceeded to Delos, but that was a sacred 
island, supposed to be the birth-place of the gods, 
Apollo and Artemis, who represented the sun and 



76 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

moon ; and as the Persians paid great honour to 
the sun and moon themselves, they passed on with- 
out injuring the place, and even, it is said, sent 
incense to burn upon the altars of the gods. 

Eretria, in the island of Euboea, was next at- 
tacked. The inhabitants had joined with the 
Athenians in the burning of Sardis, and the ven- 
geance of the Persian king was especially directed 
against them. The Eretrians defended themselves 
for six clays, but some amongst them were treache- 
rous, and, on the seventh day, opened the gates to 
their enemies. They could not, however, save 
themselves from destruction, for their city was 
plundered, burnt, and at last razed to the ground, 
and the prisoners were kept, to be carried in tri- 
umph to Persia. All this was done in the hope of 
terrifying the Athenians. They were the chief 
offenders, and on them the chief punishment was to 
fall ; and now, as the Persian army drew nearer 
and nearer to Attica, the plans for invading it 
began to be more carefully considered. 

There was one person whose opinion was well 
known to be more worthy of attention than that 
of any other man. This was Hippias, who had 
accompanied the army from Persia. By this time, 
he was an old man, but his anger against the Athe- 
nians, and his selfish, ambitious feelings, were as 
strong as ever, and now, without any hesitation, he 
gave the advice which might, he well knew, bring 
his country to ruin. 

On the eastern coast of Attica, and opposite to 
the island of Euboea, stretched a plain of about 
five or six miles in length, and two in breadth. It 
was in the form of a crescent, the horns or points 
of which consisted of two promontories, running 
out into the sea. A stream flowed through the 
middle of the plain, and near each of the pr onion* 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 77 

tories were marshes, overgrown with reeds and 
rushes. At the back of the plain rose steep slopes, 
covered with pines, olives, cedars, cypresses, and 
myrtles ; whilst, beyond were the sharp, rugged 
mountains of Pentelicus and Parnes. 

This plain was the plain of Marathon, one of 
the most celebrated spots in the history of the 
world ; and here it was that Hippias advised the 
Persians to land, under the belief that it would 
give them room for exercising the skill of their 
horsemen ; whilst the Athenians would, he knew, 
be only able to oppose them with foot-soldiers. 

But, before we attempt to describe the events 
of the battle which followed, we must turn, for a 
few moments, to the scenes which were passing at 
Athens, and see in what spirit the inhabitants were 
preparing to encounter their terrible invaders. 
The firs.t thought of the Athenians, when the news 
arrived that the Persians had landed at Marathon, 
only about six-and-twenty miles from Athens, was 
to march forth, without delay, and boldly to face 
their enemies. Every man who could bear arms 
was enlisted, and even the slaves were called upon 
to fight, with the promise of obtaining their free- 
dom. The danger was so near, that there was but 
little time to summon the aid of the other states of 
Greece. The people of Plataea, indeed, who were 
originally dependent upon Thebes, but had lately 
placed themselves under the protection of Athens, 
despatched a thousand men to join the army ; but 
this was the only support offered by any of the 
neighbouring states, and Sparta was so far off, that 
it seemed scarcely possible to send word of the 
landing of the Persians soon enough to obtain help 
from thence. 

The Athenians, however, would not be contented 
without making an effort to let the Spartans know 



78 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

of their great peril, and they accordingly despatched 
a messenger to Sparta, named Phidippides, famed 
for the extraordinary quickness with which he could 
travel. Phidippides journeyed without pause 01 
rest, and the next day reached Sparta. He deliv- 
ered his message, entreating for aid ; and the Spar- 
tans did not refuse it. But one of their great fes- 
tivals was then approaching, and it was a fixed law 
of their religion never to begin an expedition at 
that season till the moon was at the full. It 
wanted some days of that. They were obliged, 
therefore, to wait, and, before assistance was sent, 
the battle of Marathon had been fought. The 
Athenians, having crossed the mountains, which 
lay between them and their enemies, descended 
into the plain, where the Persians were encamped. 
There are said to have been about ten thousand 
men in their army, who, by the laws of Athens, 
were to be commanded by ten generals, each one 
having the command for a day. One amongst them 
was Miltiades ; he had once been ruler of the 
Thracian Chersonesus, a country close to the 
Hellespont, but had fled from it to avoid the anger 
of the Persian king, whom he had offended. Mil- 
tiades was an exceedingly clever man, and a very 
excellent general, and, though his countrymen were 
inclined to be suspicious of him, because he had 
once been a tyrant, they still looked up to him so 
much, that several of the generals were willing to 
give up their own authority, and to trust the chief 
command of the army to him on this important 
occasion. Miltiades, however, would not risk a 
battle till his own turn came to command, for he 
did not wish to excite any jealous feeling. 

The Persian host consisted of about 120,000 
men, gathered from forty-six different nations ; and 
ihe first sight of them must have been very alarm- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 79 

ing to the Greeks, who had never been accustomed 
even to their strange dresses, and had heard enough 
of their conquests to fear them greatly. The two 
armies were stationed about a mile distant from 
each otker. The Athenians were on rather higher 
ground than the Persians, and when the signal was 
given, they rushed down eagerly upon their ene- 
mies ; whilst the Persians stood looking upon them 
with contempt, and thinking it madness that such 
a small body of men should venture to oppose so 
vast a host. 

The Persian army was strongest in the middle, 
and weakest at the sides ; but it was just the re- 
verse with the Athenian. When, therefore, the 
attack began, the Greeks in the centre were driven 
back, but those at the sides made up for this loss. 

They drove the Persians, who were fighting 
against them, back to the shore, and into the 
marshes near the promontories, where they could 
not find firm ground to stand ; and when these 
were quite defeated, Miltiades made the two side 
bodies of Greeks join together and attack the Per- 
sians, who had been victorious in the centre. In 
this way he routed them all. The Persians fled to 
the shore, hoping to get on board their ships, but 
many perished in the marshes, and numbers also 
were slain. 

Some persons say that Hippias was amongst 
the killed, but others declare that he escaped, and 
died afterwards in the island of Lemnos. Seven 
of the Persian ships were taken. One of them, 
when pushing off from the shore, was seized by the 
brother of the famous Greek poet, iEschylus, and 
held by him until the Persians cut off his hand 
with a hatchet. 

It was evening before the last remains of the 
mighty Persian host, which had looked so proudly 



80 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

upon the little army of the Greeks, escaped to the 
ships that were lying in the bay ready to shelter 
them. Shadows had gathered over the plain, where 
the dead lay motionless and at rest, but the sharp 
peak of the mountain of Pentelicus was steeped in 
the rich rose-coloured mist, which is the peculiar 
beauty of the sunsets among the hills of Greece. 
Suddenly, from the summit of the mountain, there 
flashed a quick brilliant light. It was seen by the 
Persians and the Greeks at the same moment, and 
both understood its meaning. It was the reflection 
of the sun-light on an uplifted shield. 

There were traitors at Athens, who were friends 
to Hippias, and wished the Persians to conquer ; 
and this shield was hoisted on the summit of Pen- 
telicus, to invite the Persians to sail round to the 
south coast of Attica, and land there before any 
one could be prepared to stop them. 

The Persians followed the signal, and set sail ; 
but the Athenian generals were too quick-sighted for 
them. As soon as they saw the direction in which 
the ships steered, they guessed their object. "With- 
out a moment's delay, the army set forth on its re- 
turn to Athens, leaving only a small portion of men 
at Marathon to bury the dead. When the Persians 
arrived at the southern coast, they found an Athe- 
nian army still ready to oppose them, and their plans 
being thus totally defeated, they soon after sailed 
back to Asia. 

Thus ended the first great battle between the 
Persians and the Greeks. 

It was remembered by the Greeks with triumph, 
and celebrated in every possible way. Pictures 
were painted, and poems were written about it, and 
the Athenians declared that even the gods had in- 
terfered to save them from their enemies. The sol- 
diers who died in the battle were considered as 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 81 

greater than human beings ; and when a celebrated 
Athenian orator, in after years, wished to assure 
his hearers of the truth of his words, he swore, as 
a sacred oath, by the bones of those who lay buried 
at Marathon. 

The plain of Marathon is, at this day, in many 
respects what it was when the battle took place, 
more than two thousand years ago. It is bare, with- 
out hedges or houses ; but between the two marshes 
there stands a lofty mound, beneath which lie the 
bones of the 192 Athenians who fell on that cele- 
brated day. At a little distance may also be seen 
some large blocks of white marble, the remains of 
a monument, which, after the death of Miltiades, 
was raised there to his honour. The shepherds who 
feed their sheep on the plain of Marathon, still 
speak of the battle that was fought there ; and when 
the howling of the wind, or the roaring of the sea, 
are heard in the dark night, they nee with their 
flocks to the mountains, for they believe that they 
have heard the shouts of spectre warriors, and the 
neighing of their phantom horses. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE. 
b. c. 480. 

When Miltiades returned to Athens, after gaining 
the victory at Marathon, he no doubt looked for- 
ward to a life of great honour and glory. Every 
one admired and respected him ; and his influence 
was so great, that when he asked for some ships and 
men in order to carry out an expedition which ho 
had planned, his request was granted at once, though 



82 HISTORY OF GREECE, 

no one knew exactly what lie intended to do. Ho 
probably meant in the end to take vengeance on 
the islands that had submitted to the Persians ; but 
his first wish was to revenge some private injuries 
which he had received from an enemy in the island 
of Paros. He sailed to Paros, therefore, and laid 
siege to the chief town, but he could not take it ; 
and whilst he was trying to do so, he accidentally 
injured his knee, and the wound became so serious, 
that he was obliged to return to Athens. This was 
a heavy disappointment to the men who went with 
him ; for he had promised them great riches from 
the expedition. His enemies took advantage of the 
complaints made against him, and accused him pub- 
licly of having deceived the people. When the 
case was tried, Miltiades was brought on a couch 
into the court ; but his brother was obliged to de- 
fend his cause, because he was too ill to do it him- 
self. The judges pronounced him to be guilty, and 
his punishment would have been very severe, if it 
had not been for his late victories. As it was, they 
ordered him to pay a large fine ; and because he 
could not raise the money directly, he was thrown 
into prison, where he soon afterwards died of the 
wound in his leg. 

It was a sad end for a great man, though Mil- 
tiades certainly deserved some punishment for his 
selfish conduct. The Athenians paid him great 
honour after his death, by raising the monument to 
his memory, the remains of which, as were before 
said, are to be seen on the plain of Marathon at 
this day. 

The persons in Athens who were of the greatest 
importance when Miltiades was dead, were Themis- 
tocles and Aristides. Themistocles was a man of 
high birth on his father's side. His mother was a 
foreigner, and therefore not so much thought of 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 83 

He was rich, clever, and ambitious. It is said that 
he used to lie awake at night, thinking upon the 
greatness of Miltiades, and longing to, resemble 
him ; and his one object seems to have been to 
make Athens a powerful state, and to have the prin- 
cipal honour and inflence in it himself. 

Aristides was a very different person. He wish- 
ed, like Themistocles, to make Athens powerful, but 
he did not care for greatness for himself His only 
desire was to do what was just and right ; and 
though he belonged to a rich and noble family, and 
had a great many opportunities of gaining wealth 
from the public offices which he held, he cared so 
little for money, that he lived and died poor. 

Such a man was certain of being very much re- 
spected ; but he also excited a great deal of envy 
and ill will. Persons who were not good them- 
selves, disliked to have such an excellent example 
set them ; and Themistocles himself, though he was 
in many respects noble and honourable, was not 
willing to follow the plans of Aristides when they 
interfered with his own ambition. In consequence 
of these feelings, Aristides was banished from 
Athens by the sentence of ostracism. No fault 
was brought against him, but his name was written 
down by the greater number of persons who had 
to vote, merely because they hated him for being so 
much better than themselves. There is a story 
told that Aristides was asked by a man, who was 
going to vote, but who could not write, to inscribe 
his own name upon the shell ; and tha^t when he in- 
quired of the man why he wished Aristides to be 
sent into exile, the reply was : u Because I am tired 
of hearing him called the Just." 

When Aristides was gone, Themistocles had no 
one to be his rival with the people : and he certain-, 
ly used his influence well, for he did his utmost to 



84 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

prepare them for an evil which he foresaw to be 
near at hand — the renewal of the Persian invasion. 
Every one who thought at all, must have known 
that Darius would never rest until he had revenged 
himself for the loss of the battle of Marathon ; and, 
in fact, all Asia was kept in a tumult and excitement 
for three years afterwards, from the vast prepara- 
tions which the king of Persia was making to invade 
Greece again. But it was the will of Providence 
that Darius himself should never have this favourite 
wish fulfilled. In the fourth year he was disturbed 
by great family troubles, which occupied all his at- 
tention ; and at the same time, an insurrection 
broke out in Egypt, which was then subject to Per- 
sia ; and just as he had settled his family disputes, 
and was thinking of punishing the Egyptians, he 
died. 

His son Xerxes succeeded him. He was a differ- 
ent person from Darius ; not so clever, and not so 
ambitious ; and, from having been bred up in a 
court, more fond of luxury and finery. His mother, 
Atossa, was the daughter of Cyrus, and Xerxes was 
proud of such a grandfather, and had from child- 
hood been taught to look upon himself as superior 
to every one. Probably he would never have 
troubled himself with such a great undertaking as an 
expedition against Greece, if he had not been urged 
to it by the persons about hiin. There were several 
members of the family of Hippias at his court, who 
were always wishing for war, and used every effort 
to persuade the young king to engage in it ; and at 
last they succeeded. Xerxes not only resolved upon 
the war, but determined to carry it on himself; and 
though his uncle, Artabanus, warned him against 
running such a risk, he was not to be persuaded to 
give it up. 

It took four years to collect an army, and provide 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



85 



for the support of the troops on their long a march, 
Magazines of all things necessary were formed at 
different places by which they were to pass, and 
stores were also ordered to be carried by the fleet. 
Without this care it would have been impossible 
for such an enormous number of persons to have 
found food enough to eat, for the accounts given of 
them almost surpass belief. There were Persians, 
MedeSj Bactrians. Parthians, and soldiers from the 
provinces next to Persia, wearing light caps on 
their heads, and coats or tunics, the sleeves of which 
were covered with scales ; Assyrians with brazen 
helmets, who carried steel-headed clubs ; Indians, 
dressed in cotton, with cane bows and arrows ; 
Arabs, who wore coats reaching to the feet, and 
who likwise used bows and arrows, though of great- 
er length ; half-naked Ethiopians, also, who covered 
themselves with the skins of beasts, and painted 
their bodies in red and white when they went to 
battle ; and a race called Eastern Ethiopians, who 
are said to have worn the skin of a horse's head in- 
stead of a helmet, with ears standing up, and the 
mane hanging down behind them ; not to mention 
the inhabitants of Asia Minor, and of the country 
bordering on the Black Sea ; with others, whose 
names are less commonly known: in all 1,7000,000 
foot soldiers, and 80,000 horsemen, besides the men 
on board more than 1,200 ships of war. The mul- 
titude increased as the army travelled on, so that 
at last it became almost impossible to reckon them. 
They set out from Sardis: and when they 
reached Abydos, on the borders of the Hellespont, 
a marble throne was erected on a hill above the 
town, and Xerxes seated upon it, looked down upon 
his mighty host. It must havo been a splendid 
sight, more splendid perhaps than any other which 
we read of in the history of the world. White tents. 



86 HISTORY OF GREECE, 

and brilliant banners, horses with gay trappings, 
and men with glittering arms, filled the plain ; and 
over the Hellespont stretched two bridges, framed 
of boats, for the passage of the army ; a work which 
no human being had ever before attempted. Xerxes 
might well have imagined himself equal to the gods : 
all men seemed subject to him, and even the mighty 
sea could not stop his progress. His first thoughts 
as he gazed upon his army, were doubtless full of 
pride and glory, but a few minutes afterwards tears 
rushed to his eyes. Artabanus, his uncle, drew near 
and asked the cause. " I weep," replied Xerxes, 
"to think that a hundred years hence not one of 
these will be alive." 

The day after the grand review of the army, 
orders were given that they should begin to cross 
the Hellespont. The troops were to pass over on 
one bridge, the baggage on the other. The bridges 
were strewn with myrtle, and incense was burnt 
upon them, to make them, as the Persians believed, 
sacred; and then, 10,000 men, called the Immor- 
tals, the bravest of the Persian soldiers, marched 
over, crowned with chaplets. The rest of the army 
followed, one body after another. On they went 
for seven days and seven nights, those who moved 
too slowly being driven forward by whips. Xerxes, 
himself the tallest, and grandest-looking man of 
the whole army, was the last. 

They were now in Europe, but there were many 
miles to journey before they could reach Greece. 
Xerxes, however, had but little trouble in providing 
for his host. All the towns and villages through 
which they passed were obliged to furnish them 
with provisions ; and messengers were sent before 
the king, to every place at which he intended to 
stop, to order a banquet to be prepared for himself. 
These banquets cost so much money, that a citizen 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 87 

of Abdora, a town in Thrace, advised his fellow* 
citizens to offer a solemn thanksgiving to the gods, 
through whose kindness it happened that Xerxes 
was accustomed to make only one meal a day. 
The want of water was the only thing which the 
army really suffered from. We are told that they 
several times drank rivers dry. This will not ap- 
pear so difficult to believe, when we remember that 
their numbers went on increasing continually. 

Such an immense host could not approach 
Greece without causing great alarm, but none of the 
leading states thought of submission. They remem- 
bered that the Greeks had been conquerors at Ma- 
rathon, and they trusted to be so again. Their 
chief difficulty lay in the quarrels which the differ- 
ent states had with one another, and which prevent- 
ed them from acting together. The Spartans, 
about this time, had a dispute with the people of 
Argos, and the Argives were more willing to yield 
to Xerxes, than to help their enemies in resisting 
him. The Achseans, also, kept aloof from a feeling 
of jealousy towards Sparta ; and the Athenians 
and the people of JEgina were enemies. The 
Athenians, however, exerted themselves far more 
than any of the other states. Themistocles did 
everything he possibly could to put an end to all 
quarrels ; and, at length, it was agreed that a con- 
gress, or assembly of deputies sent by all who were 
wiMing to oppose the Persians, should meet upon the 
Isthmus of Corinth to consider what was to be done 
upon this occasion. It was determined to ask for 
assistance from the inhabitants of Crete, Syracuse, 
and others who might be able to help them ; and as 
the meeting took place before Xerxes had left Asia, 
and they were anxious to know what the number of 
his armies might be, they sent spies to Sardis, to 
bring back a true report. The spies were discovered, 



88 HISTORY OF GHEECE, 

and the Persian generals were about to put them to 
death ; but Xerxes, in the pride of his heart, order- 
ed that they should be led through his vast host, 
and then sent back to Greece, to tell their country- 
men the power of the mighty monarch of Asia. 

The ambassadors who went to beg for aid, in this 
time of difficulty, were not very successful. Every 
one was afraid. The inhabitants of the island of 
Corcyra promised their help, but took care to delay 
till it was too late. Gelo, the tyrant of Syracuse, 
offered to send a large force to Greece, if he were 
allowed to be the chief commander of all the forces, 
both by land and sea. But when he was told that 
only a Spartan could be allowed to command at sea, 
he held back, saying, that they seemed better pro- 
vided with generals than with troops, and that the 
Greeks had lost the spring out of their year : by 
which he meant the troops which he intended to 
have sent, if they had granted his request. It was 
fortunate, however, that they did not do so, for 
there was great reason to suppose that Gelo was not 
really friendly to the Greeks, and that he would 
have gone over to the Persians if it had suited his 
purpose. 

The next thing to be considered was. at what 
point it would be best for the Greeks to station them- 
selves, in order to oppose the invaders. It was 
thought at first that the pass of Tempe, in Thessaly, 
would be a desirable place ; but this was afterwards 
given up, and Thermopylae was then fixed upon. 

Thermopylae was a pass between Thessaly and 
Phosis. The jutting promontory of Mount (Eta 
towered above it on one side, and on the other it was 
washed by the waves of the sea. It was about four 
or five miles in length, and its breadth at either end 
was so narrow, that it is said not to have allowed 
space for the passage of more than a single car* 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 89 

yiage at a time ; but in the middle it was wider 
At the foot^of the rocks hot streams gushed out, 
and trickled across the road, and from these came 
the name, Thermopylae, which means "the hot gates." 
The pass of Thermopylae is now very unlike what 
it must have been in the time of Xerxes ; for the 
sea has retired, and a river that flows from amongst 
the hills has brought down a quantity of mud, which 
has hardened by degrees, so that Thermopylae is 
now becoming a broad plain. But when it was 
chosen by the Greeks as the best place for opposing 
the Persians, it was easy for a few hundred men to 
defend it against thousands ; and thus, doubtless, 
thought Leonidas, king of Sparta, when he set forth 
with 300 Spartans, a body of Helots, and a small 
number of troops from the other states, to defend 
his country against the invasion of the Persian 
monarch. At the time when Leonidas set forth for 
Thermopylae, preparations were going on for cele- 
brating the Olympic games ; but no one thought it 
necessary to stop them, or even to delay them ; for 
the festival at which they were held was very sacred 
in the eyes of the Greeks, and it was supposed that 
Leonidas would be quite able to prevent the Per- 
sians from advancing further into the country before 
it was over. Every care, however, was taken to op- 
pose Xerxes, both by sea and land, and a fleet was 
sent to guard the entrance of the channel between 
the Island of Euboea and the coast of Greece. 

The terror of the Greeks by sea seems to have 
been greater than on land. When the first fire sig- 
nals gave notice that a few Persian ships, sent to 
observe what the Greeks were doing, were in sight, 
the alarm was so great, that the Spartan commander 
thought it better to retire, after setting watches on 
the heights of Euboea to give the earliest intelli- 
gence of the enemy's movements. Not many days 



90 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

after, the whole of the Persian fleet was seen ap« 
proaching. They anchored 'near the south coast of 
Magnesia, on a beautiful, still, summer's night, so 
calm and bright, that no one could have thought of 
danger. As the morning dawned, a faint ripple, 
and the gradual swell of the sea, gave notice of an 
approaching storm. It came from the north-east, 
and its fury was terrible. For three days and three 
nights it raged, and when at length it subsided, the 
Persian fleet was scattered, its mariners were lost, 
and the sea shore was strewn for miles with the 
bodies of the unfortunate men who had perished. 

The Greeks believed that their gods had raised 
the storm on purpose to destroy their enemies, and 
they were full of thankfulness and delight. But 
the Persians were not so easily defeated. They had 
indeed lost a great many ships, and a large number 
of men, but there was an immense force still left, 
and the Greeks soon found, to their surprise, that 
their enemies had another fleet ready to oppose 
them. Themistocles, who was one of the comman- 
ders, still, however, kept up their courage ; twice 
they attacked the Persians, and were successful ; 
but the third time, when the Persians drew near to 
Artemisium, on the north coast of Eubcea, and be- 
gan the battle themselves, the Greeks were forced to 
retreat, though it could not really be said that they 
were conquered, as their enemies suffered almost as 
much as themselves. Probably one cause of their 
retiring was the news which at this time reached 
them of all that had happened at Thermopylae. 

To this place we must now go back. It has been 
said that the Greeks were not aware of any pressing 
danger when they sent Leonidas and his small body 
of troops to defend the narrow pass of Thermopylae. 
There seemed, indeed, but slight cause for alarm. A 
few men, brave as the Spartans, might well have de- 



HISTORY OP GREECE. 91 

fended that narrow way, till the Olympic games 
were over, and the Grecian armies assembled ; and 
if Thermopylas had been, what they supposed, the 
only passage for the Persian troops, so it would pro- 
bably have happened. 

But there was another way, difficult indeed, and 
scarcely known, except by persons very well ac- 
quainted with the mountains, yet still sufficient to 
allow at least a portion of the Persian army to pass 
over the mountain, instead of at its base. It was a 
track along a mountain torrent, which came out at 
the town of Alpeni at the southern end of the pass, 
and when Leonidas reached Thermopylae, he was, for 
the first time, told of its existence. A body of 
Phocians was instantly sent to defend it ; and, at 
the same time, orders were given to repair a ruined 
wall at the northern end of the pass, which had in 
former days been built by the Phocians to guard 
themselves from the incursions of the Thessalians. 

As the Persian armies drew, near, many of the 
troops brought from Peloponnesus became alarmed 
and would willingly have gone back, but the other 
allies persuaded Leonidas to retain them. The Spar- 
tans apparently had no thought of fear. When 
Xerxes sent forward a horseman to reconnoitre, the 
man brought back word that the Spartan soldiers 
were stationed on the outside of the wall, and were 
engaged in combing their long hair, and practising 
gymnastic exercises, or feats of strength and activi- 
ty. Xerxes inquired what the meaning of such 
conduct could be, and was told by a person who was 
acquainted with the customs of the Greeks, that the 
action of combing their hair signified their intention 
to fight even to death. This intention could not, 
however, have seemed of much consequence to the 
lord of such innumerable armies ; and Xerxes, sup- 
posing that his presence alone would be sufficient to 



92 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

terrify them, waited for four days in the vain ex* 
pectation that the Greeks would retreat. 

On the fifth day, orders were given to a chosen 
body of Persian troops to attack the insolent ene- 
my, and bring them prisoners to the presence of 
the Persian monarch, who, seated upon a lofty 
throne, prepared proudly to witness what he ima- 
gined would be his certain victory. But the event 
was far diiferent from his expectation. Again and 
again, not only on that day, but on the morrow, the 
flower of the Persian army, even the 10.000 Im- 
mortals, the chosen body guard of the king, were 
driven back by the intrepid Greeks, and thrice the 
Persian monarch started from his throne in rage 
and disappointment, as he saw his soldiers yield to 
the valour of their foes. 

Sadness and perplexity filled the heart of the 
haughty king. If such was the opposition which 
he met at the commencement of his project, what 
difficulties must he not expect before it could be 
completed % Whilst these thoughts were weighing 
upon his spirits, a secret was made known to him 
which restored all his former hopes. A traitor 
from the Greeks, named Ephialtes, betrayed the 
fact that there was a track over the mountains. 
This was all that Xerxes needed. A detachment 
of his army was ordered to follow the guidance of 
Ephialtes, and when night drew on, they began to 
ascend the rugged path. For several hours they 
went on unperceived and unthought of; and by the 
time that the morning light broke over the sea 3 
they had reached the summit of the mountain. 
The Phocians who had been left to guard the path 
were resting, unconscious of danger ; but as the 
Persians came nearer, trampling over the fallen 
leaves of the trees which covered the hills, the 
Bound was heard in the deep silence of the early 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 93 

Bummer's morning ; and in a moment the Phocians 
were aroused to the consciousness of their great 
peril. They seized their arms, and turned "bravely 
upon their enemies. The Persians gave way, but 
only for a moment. A shower of arrows, aimed at 
the Greeks, drove them from their position, and re- 
treating to the highest peak of the mountains, they 
resolved to fight to the last. But the' Persians 
took no trouble to follow them ; on they passed, to 
descend the southern side of the mountains. The 
tidings of their approach were soon brought to 
Leonidas, and spread rapidly through the camp. 
The danger was not to be escaped except by flight. 
Leonidas and his Spartans could not flee. They 
had been placed in that post by their country, and 
to leave it would stamp them with shame for ever. 
But the allies were at liberty. Leonidas could not 
ask them to remain, when death must inevitably be 
their fate. Troop after troop, they retired: all, 
save a body of men from Thespia, a Boeotian town, 
who chose to share the glory and the fate of the 
Spartans ; and 400 Thebans, whom Leonictas knew 
were in reality traitors to the cause of Greece, and 
whom he retained in order to punish them. Three 
persons, however, the Spartan king was willing, if 
possible, to save. Two were his own kinsmen : the 
third was Megistias, a descendant of a celebrated 
ancient seer. Megistias was himself a soothsayer, 
and is said to have foretold the events which had 
taken place. But though he sent away his only 
son — saying he was anxious that the family of his 
great ancestor should not end with him — he re- 
fused to go himself, preferring rather to die, than 
to see the ruin of his country. 

The kinsmen of Leonidas made the same choice. 
When they were told that they might carry back 
letters and messages to Sparta ; one replied that 



94 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

he had come to bear arms, not to carry letters ; and 
the other, that his deeds would tell all that Sparta 
wished to know. 

By the middle of the day the Greek allies were 
in safety; the 10,000 Persians, who had crossed 
the mountain, were at the southern entrance of the 
pass, and Leonidas and his friends were ready to 
oppose them to death. The barbarians, as the 
Greeks were accustomed to call the Persians, came 
on, driven forward by the lash of their commanders. 
The Spartans needed nothing but their own stead- 
fast bravery to urge them to the battle. They 
sallied forth, attacked the Persians, and four times 
forced them to retire. But their small numbers 
were soon thinned. One of the first amongst the 
slain was Leonidas ; and crowding around his body 
to defend it from the Persians, the Spartans fought 
in desperation. Their spears were broken, and 
their swords blunted ; and at length, when the 
Persians had actually entered the pass, they re- 
treated beyond the wall at the northern end, and 
collecting together on a knoll, there made their last 
stand. 

The Thebans cowardly and traitorous as they 
had always been, threw down their arms, begged 
for mercy, and were saved ; whilst the few remain- 
ing Spartans, armed only with a few swords, stood 
as marks for the arrows and the spears of their 
enemies, and fell at last, happy in the thought — 
the best thought which could give strength to the 
mind of a heathen — that they had died for their 
country, and by their country would be honoured 
They were buried on the spot where they perished, 
and the inscription, engraved upon their tomb in 
after years, bade the passenger " tell at Sparta, that 
they had died in obedience to her laws." 

The body of Leonidas was carried off by the 






HISTORY OF GREECE. 95 

Persians, but a marble lion was placed on the knoll 
in memory of birn. 

Two Spartans, it is said, were absent from the 
camp when the attack began. They had been sent 
to Alpeni on account of a distressing complaint in 
their eyes. When the news was brought of the ad- 
vance of the Persians, one made his Helot lead him 
to the place of combat, where he fell with the rest 
of his countrymen. The heart of the other failed 
him, and he fled. But when he returned to Sparta 
he was shunned as if afflicted by a pestilence. No 
one would speak to him or share the fire of his 
hearth with him ; coward was the name constantly 
applied to him ; and he never regained the favour 
of his countrymen until his conduct, on an after 
occasion, showed that he wished to make amends 
for his former weakness. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS. 
B. c. 480. 

Whilst Xerxes was thus slowly and with difficulty 
advancing into Greece, the Athenians were fully 
occupied in providing for their own safety. It was 
quite clear that if Xerxes succeeded in reaching 
Athens, it would be impossible to prevent his tak- 
ing possession of it ; and when news was brought 
that the Grecian fleet had been obliged to retire 
from Artemisium, and that Leonidas had been de- 
feated at Thermopylae, the hope of being able to 
resist the power of the Persians was nearly at an 
end. The inhabitants of Peloponnesus, instead of 
offering assistance, were determined, they said, not 



to send any force beyond the Isthmus of Corinth, 
which they intended to fortify with a wall : and as 
the Athenians were thus left to themselves, their 
only prospect of safety was to cross to the Island 
of Salamis, with their wives and children, and, 
leaving them there, to make a final effort for their 
country by sea. 

Themistocles was the person who urged them 
to do this. Some time before, when first the alarm 
about the Persian invasion began, the Greeks had 
sent to the oracle at Delphi, to know what it would 
be right to do in order to save themselves. The 
answer which the priestess gave only increased 
their fears. "Fly," she said, "to the uttermost 
ends of the earth : for, from the crown to the sole, 
no part of Athens can escape the fire and sword of 
the barbarian. Begone, and expect your doom." 
The messengers turned away in despair ; but they 
were cheered by the advice of one of the chief men 
at Delphi, who entreated them not to be so soon 
discouraged, but to approach the temple once more, 
and beg of the god in his pity to give them a more 
favourable reply. Again therefore they appeared 
before the priestess ; but the second answer was 
nearly as gloomy as the first, and much more diffi- 
cult to be understood. " The goddess Athene," 
they were told, " had earnestly struggled, but could 
not propitiate her sire to spare her beloved city. 
It, and the whole land, were irrevocably doomed to 
ruin. Yet had Zeus granted to her prayer that, 
when all beside was lost, a wooden wall should 
still shelter her citizens. Let them not wait to be 
trampled down by the horse and foot of the in- 
vaders, but turn their backs ; they might again look 
him in the face. In seed-time or in harvest, thou, 
divine Salamis, shalt make women childless." 

Many were the different opinions in Athens as 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 97 

to the meaning of this strange prophecy. The 
general idea was that the wooden walls meant 
ships ; but whether the ships were to take them 
away to some distant land, or whether the Atheni- 
ans were to defend themselves by their means, 
seemed very uncertain. Some great event, they 
saw, was predicted as about to happen near Sala* 
mis ; and probably the childless women meant 
their own people ; so at least it was supposed ; till 
Themistocles, who is suspected of having secretly 
persuaded the priestess at Delphi to give this an* 
swer, suggested that a Grecian oracle would never 
have called Salamis "divine," if their barbarous 
enemies were to gain the victory there. " Rather," 
he said, " the prophecy meant that Salamis was the 
place where the Persians were to be destroyed; 
and, for the present, the best thing the Athenians 
could do, would be at once to retire there. They 
might carry away their treasures, and place their 
wives and children in safety, and the city must be 
commended to the care of Athene, and then left to 
its fate." 

This was a very sad proposition, especially for 
the old people, who had long lived in peace and 
comfort in their native city. Some of the poorest 
determined to remain ; partly because they could 
not afford the expense of removing ; and partly 
because they still had a hope, that in some wonder- 
ful way Athens would be delivered. The rest 
made up their minds to go ; and, when all things 
were ready — the treasures collected, and the women, 
children, and slaves assembled, — Cimon, the son of 
Miltiades, set the example of departure. Carry- 
ing his horse's bridle in his hand, he ascended to 
the Acropolis, and, after hanging up the bridle in 
the temple of Athene, as being no longer useful to 
him, he took down one of the shields which were 
9 



98 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

placed against the wall, made his prayers to the 
goddess, then went down to the water side, and em- 
barked. His fellow-citizens followed his example. 
The ships carried some to Salamis, some to the 
island of iEgina, and some to Troezen, a district to 
the south-east of Argolis, in Peloponnesus. Troezen 
was the birth-place of Theseus, who has been men- 
tioned as one of the great heroes of Greece, and 
the first king of Attica. From this cause, proba- 
bly, the Troezenians were particularly touched by 
the misfortunes of the Athenians, and now, in their 
distress, they showed the greatest kindness to the 
poor exiles. Two oboles, or about fourpence-half- 
penny a day, were allowed to every person for his 
support ; a schoolmaster was hired to teach the 
children ; and even the vineyards and orchards 
were thrown open, and the children allowed to eat 
as much fruit as they pleased. 

When the women and their little ones were thus 
provided for, nothing remained to be done, but to 
collect all the ships and men possible, and assem- 
ble them in readiness for the next attack of the 
Persians. 

It may be as well now to return to Xerxes, 
whom we left conqueror at the pass of Thermopy- 
lse. This pass was the entrance, or the key, as it 
has been called, of northern Greece. When Xerxes 
had once gained possession of it, his way seemed 
clear before him. Phocis, the first state which lay 
in his way, was ravaged, whilst the. people fled to 
the high plains, under the loftiest peaks of Mount 
Parnassus, and left their houses and their gardens, 
their temples and fields, to be destroyed by their 
enemies. Doris was spared, because it was con- 
sidered friendly to the Persians ; and the great 
army moved on to the borders of Bceotia, intending 
to pass through it to Attica ; whilst a small force 






HISTORY OF GREECE. 99 

was ordered to march to Delphi, strip the temple 
of its treasures, and bring them as a tribute to 
Xerxes. It was more easy, however, to give this 
order than to execute it. 

Of all places in Greece, Delphi was considered 
the most sacred. The situation of the town was 
very beautiful. It lay at the foot of Parnassus, a 
mountain dedicated peculiarly to the gods, which 
was covered at its base with myrtles, laurels, and olive 
trees, and contained numerous caves, glens, and 
romantic ravines, supposed to be visited by nymphs 
and goddesses. The buildings of the town sloped 
one above another, in a semicircle, something like 
a theatre ; and at the highest point was the temple 
of Apollo, which the Alcmgeonids had so splendidly 
built of Parian marble. In the centre of this 
temple was a small opening, from whence a vapour 
issued at times, which made any person who leant 
over it dizzy. When the priestess of Apollo held 
her head over this vapour, and became, as it were, 
intoxicated by it, the words which she spoke were 
supposed to be the inspiration of the god ; and 
were carefully written down by the priests, and 
afterwards repeated in verse to the person who 
came to consult the Oracle. The fountain of Cas- 
talia, which it was imagined gave the persons who 
drank of it the power of becoming poets, flowed 
very near Delphi ; and other places in the neigh- 
bourhood were considered sacred also ; so that the 
approach of the Persians must have seemed quite 
a profanation of all which the Greeks were accus- 
tomed to revere. The people of Delphi fled away 
when they heard that their enemies were approach- 
ing. But when they asked of the Oracle what 
should be done with the sacred treasures, they were 
told not to touch them, for the god would be able 
to guard his own. The city, therefore, was left 



100 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

without defence, and the Persians drew nearer and 
nearer ; but, strange to say, as they came quite 
close, a sudden fear seized them, and, instead of 
obeying the orders given them, they suddenly turned 
back and fled ; and, being pursued by the Delphi- 
ans, many of them were killed. It is impossible 
to tell now what was the exact cause of their fears ; 
probably they had an impression that the place was 
sacred, and that they were doing wrong in trying 
to plunder it, for its fame was spread far beyond 
Greece. 

Some writers say that a fearful thunderstorm 
burst upon them, and that portions of the great 
rocks and cliffs near the city fell upon them and 
crushed them. The Persians themselves declared 
that they saw two giant warriors foremost in pur- 
suing them ; and these the Delphians said must be 
two of their native heroes. But all these stories 
cannot of course be believed, and the only fact we 
can be quite certain about is, that the Persians, in 
consequence of their fears, left Delphi untouched. 

Xerxes and his army then moved on to Athens, 
plundering the country through which they passed, 
and burning the towns and villages. They found 
Athens deserted ; only the few old people, who 
had refused to go with their fellow-citizens, remain- 
ed ; and these shut themselves up in the citadel, 
and built a wooden wall round the top of the rock, 
and when the Persians tried to clamber up, threw 
down heavy stones upon them, and crushed them. 

The great Persian king was almost baffled by 
these few poor people ; but after some time a way 
was found of climbing up the north side of the 
Acropolis, whilst the little body of Athenians were 
defending the western side ; and so the Persian 
soldiers at last entered the citadel. Some of the 
Athenians threw themselves over the rock ; others 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 101 

took refuge in the temple of Athene. But the Per- 
sians had no compassion upon them. They were 
all killed, and the soldiers then plundered the tem- 
pi e, and set fire to the citadel. 

The light of the flames spread far and wide. It 
reached the Grecian fleet, anchored at Salamis, and 
told the sad news that Athens was taken. The 
Greek commanders were at that moment assembled 
at Salamis, in council, and were deliberating at 
what place it would be best to wait for the approach 
of the enemy. When the fate of Athens was known, 
some instantly retired to make preparations for a 
retreat ; the others proposed to give battle near the 
Isthmus of Corinth. The discussions lasted till 
midnight. All then went on board their ships, pre- 
pared to sail the next morning for the Isthmus. 

Themistocles was amongst the number ; he was 
not the chief on this occasion, as Eurybiades, the 
Spartan, had the command at sea ; and though he 
disapproved of the plan, he could not prevent it. 
Upon his return to his vessel, he was met by one of 
his countrymen, a man of very superior judgment, 
somewhat older than himself, who inquired what 
had been resolved upon. Themistocles told him. 
" Then," replied his friend, " all is lost. The fleet 
will disperse, and Eurybiades will be unable to re- 
tain them. Go, and if you can, make him stay and 
fight here." 

This advice quite agreed with the ideas of 
Themistocles himself; he felt sure that if once the 
Peloponnesian allies were in sight of their own 
shores, they would be only anxious to save them- 
selves and their cities, and would directly leave the 
fleet. After hearing his friend's opinion, he went 
on board the ship of Eurybiades, to tell him what 
they feared, and persuade him to go on shore again, 
and call another council. Eurybiades, when he had 



102 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

heard all that was to be said, consented, and the 
council was again assembled. 

Themistocles, in his impatience, would not wait 
for Eurybiades to propose his plan, but began him- 
self to explain his views, and endeavour to persuade 
the assembly that he was right. " Themistocles," 
said Adeimantus, the Corinthian admiral, " those 
who rise in the games before their time are flogged." 
" Yes." replied Themistocles, " but those who loiter 
are not crowned : M and then, turning to Eurybiades, 
he made a speech, setting forth the advantages of 
remaining where they then were. The real motive 
of his proposal (his fears that the Peloponnesian 
allies would desert) he was of course obliged to 
conceal. Adeimantus still objected. He was pro- 
bably afraid that Corinth, his own city, would be 
exposed to danger, if the fleet continued at Salamis. 
He called on Eurybiades not to listen to a man 
who had no country. The ungenerous taunt roused 
the anger of Themistocles. 4i The Athenians, who 
have manned 200 vessels," he replied, " have more 
land than the Corinthians, and there is not a people 
in Greece who can resist their attack." Once more 
appealing to Eurybiades, he declared his final de- 
termination. " If," he said, " the plan of remaining 
where they were was not agreed to, the Athenians 
would at once take their families on board their 
ships, set sail for Italy, and leave Greece to defend 
itself." This threat determined the question. The 
commander yielded, and it was resolved to remain 
and fight at Salamis. 

Six days after the Grecian fleet had retired from 
Artemisium, the Persian fleet anchored in the bay 
of Phalerum, on the coast of Attica, and therefore 
not far from Salamis. Xerxes, with his chief com- 
mander, Mardonius, came from Athens, and went 
on board one of the ships, and then summoned a 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 103 

council, to deliberate on the question, whether or 
not they should at once risk a battle with the Greeks. 
All present were inclined for it, with the exception 
of one person, a woman — Artemisia, queen of Caria, 
in Asia Minor, who had sent vessels to aid Xerxes, 
because her country was tributary to Persia, and 
who actually commanded her subjects in person. 
Her advice was to delay. The Greeks, she thought, 
must soon be driven from Salamis by the want of 
provisions ; and if they then retired near to the 
Isthmus, they would be likely to have dissensions 
amongst themselves, and to disperse, when, of course, 
they would be more easily conquered. Xerxes was 
not displeased with Artemisia for her boldness in 
differing from him, but he did not take her advice, 
and a battle was resolved upon. That very day he 
ordered his fleet to sail towards Salamis, and by 
nightfall the ships were formed in line of battle. 

The Greeks were as much alarmed when they 
saw their enemies' fleet made ready for action, as 
they were when they heard of the taking of Athens. 
The Peloponnesians, especially, were loud in their 
complaint. They knew that a large body of Pelo- 
ponnesian allies had been assembled at the Isthmus 
of Corinth, and that the army had worked night 
and day to raise a wall of stone, brick, wood, and 
sand across the Isthmus. They could not but think 
it much safer and better to be near their friends, 
within the reach of help, than to be obliged to op- 
pose the Persians by themselves at Salamis. 

Themistocles saw that arguments were thrown 
away. A meeting was called, in which all except 
the Athenians and the people of .ZEgina and Megara 
protested loudly against the folly of remaining near 
a country which was already in the power of the 
Persians. If some step were not immediately taken 
to force them to fight, all the plans and hopes of 



104 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Themistocles would, he knew, be disappointed 
Whilst the commanders were still talking angrily, 
he left the council without being observed, and send- 
ing for a slave, who had the charge of his children, 
and who, having been brought from the East, could 
speak the Persian language, he despatched him 
secretly to the Persian admiral with the following 
message : " Themistocles, the general of the Athe- 
nians, wishes well to the king, and desires to see 
his cause prevail ; therefore he has sent, without 
the knowledge of the Greeks, to say that they are 
panic-struck and bent on flight. If you prevent 
their escape, you insure a complete and easy vic- 
tory. Already divided among themselves, they 
will no sooner see themselves pent in by your ships, 
than they will begin to turn their arms against one 
another." The slave departed on his errand, and 
Themistocles returned to the council. 

The commanders were still engaged in discus- 
sion, and Themistocles had no wish to stop them : 
every minute's delay gave time for the Persians to 
approach, and when once Salamis was surrounded, 
it would be in vain for the Greeks to think of re- 
moving to the Isthmus. They would have no hope 
then but in instant battle. So the night was wearing 
on, when Themistocles was called out of the room, 
and told that a stranger wished to speak to him. 
He obeyed the summons. But it was no stranger 
whom he was to meet ; it was Aristides, once his 
rival, who for three years had been -an exile, but 
whose love for his country had overcome every 
petty personal feeling of enmity. He had crossed 
over from iEgina, making his way, under cover of 
the darkness, through the midst of the Persian fleet. 
" Themistocles," he said, " let us still be rivals, but 
let our strife be which can best serve our country. 
I come to say that you are wasting words m de- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 105 

bating whether you shall sail away from Salamis. 
We are encircled, and can only escape by cutting a 
passage through the enemy's fleet." 

Themistocles wished for no better intelligence. 
He did not hesitate to confess to Aristides that it 
was he himself who had induced the Persians to 
approach ; and having thus gained his point, he 
took Aristides with him to the council-chamber, 
that he might declare to the assembled command- 
ers the pressing danger which threatened them. At 
first they refused to believe it, but the information 
was soon confirmed by other persons, and dispute 
being now at an end, the Greeks prepared bravely 
to meet their foes. 

It must have been a splendid sight which pre- 
sented itself to the eyes of the Persian monarch 
when, in the month of September, in the year b. c, 
480, he stationed himself on the southern slope of 
a mountain that overlooked the gulf and the island 
of Salamis, to watch the event of the coming bat- 
tle. Dressed in his royal robes, he sat upon a 
throne of gold supported by silver feet; around 
him were his princes and courtiers, and on each side 
stood his secretaries, with tablets in their hands, on 
which to note down the names of the Persian war- 
riors who might distinguish themselves in the con- 
flict. 

His immense fleet was drawn up in three lines 
in the straits below him ; the ships from every 
quarter of his vast dominions decked out with 
splendour, and the men collected from his number- 
less tributary states appearing with every variety 
of dress, but all looking forward eagerly to the bat- 
tle, as believing themselves certain of victory. 

Opposite to them, lining the eastern coast of 
the Island of Salamis, lay the joint fleet of Athens, 
Sparta and iEgina. Aristides remained on the 



106 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

shore, watching for what would happen ; but after 
the battle began, he crossed with a body of men to 
a little islet at the entrance of the straits, where 
Xerxes had placed troops to prevent the escape of 
the Greeks, and by defeating them proved a great 
help to Themistocles. He was far too noble to al- 
low any feeling of enmity to interfere with his 
duty, and fought for his country as bravely as if he 
had not known that all the praise would be given 
to Themistocles. 

The Greeks had 378 ships. The Persians more 
than 1200. But as it has been said* " Xerxes sat 
and encouraged the Persians ; Themistocles fought 
and commanded the Greeks." The example thus 
given by a leader whom all admired, inspired the 
Greeks with courage, whilst they were also cheered 
by the hope that the gods were assisting them ; 
since they had especially sent to iEgina to pray for 
the assistance of the peculiar deities of that island 
and of Salamis. 

Before embarking to begin the battle, Themis- 
tocles addressed the assembled Greeks. " All that 
was noble and good in the Grecian character," he 
said, " depended on the event of the day. Virtue, 
honour, prosperity, and happiness, must all be lost 
if they became subject to the barbarians ;" and 
earnestly he exhorted them " to choose and hold 
fast the good." When he ceased speaking, the 
troops took their stations in the different vessels, 
and the war song burst forth, echoing amongst the 
island rocks, and followed by the splash of oars 
beating in regular order, as the navy moved on- 
ward in a close body ; the Greeks cheering each 
other with one heart and one tongue to free their 
country, their children, their wives, the temples of 

* See Wordsworth's Pictorial Greece. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 107 

their gods, and the tombs of their ancestors ; for 
all these were now at stake.* 

The straits "between Salamis and Attica are not 
more than a quarter of a mile wide in the narrow- 
est part ; and here it was that the Greeks awaited 
the approach of the Persians. It was a wise ar- 
rangement, for in consequence only a few of their 
enemies' ships could approach them at a time. The 
Persians fought with great valour, knowing that 
their king was watching them ; but those who were 
behind, wishing to distinguish themselves, pressed 
forward too eagerly, and so caused confusion. 
They were also distressed by a strong breeze, 
which blew up the channel every day at a certain 
hour. Themistocles is said to have foreseen that 
this would be a difficulty in their way, and to have 
delayed the battle in consequence. 

But one of the greatest advantages of all was 
that there was no real union amongst the Persians. 
Their forces were composed of so many different 
nations, that they had very little concern for what 
happened to each other. Artemisia, queen of Caria, 
for instance, being much pressed by the Corinthian 
admiral, and finding a vessel belonging to one of the 
Persian allies in her way, made no scruple of run- 
ning against it, and sinking it, so that not one of the 
crew escaped. Of course the Greek commander 
supposed he had been pursuing a friend, and turn- 
ed away. 

All these causes united, spread terror and con- 
fusion amongst the Persian ships. After a long 
struggle they were dispersed ; and on the evening 
of the same day on which Xerxes from his golden 
throne had surveyed his fleet in hope and triumph, he 
saw the surface of the sea and the shore covered with 

* See Wordsworth's Pictorial Greece. 



108 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the wreck of his vessels and the dead bodies of his 
men ; whilst the troops which had been sent against 
Aristides, and which are supposed to have been a 
band of his Immortals, were also completely de- 
feated. Unable to endure the sight, he groaned 
deeply, rent his clothes, and rushed from his throne 
in an agony of disappointment and despair. From 
that moment he must have begun seriously to dread 
that his hopes of conquering Greece were vain. 

The battle of Salamis was important not only to 
the Persians and Greeks, but to the whole world. 
If Xerxes had gained the victory, he would probably 
have been able to subdue all Greece ; the habits and 
customs of the East would have been introduced 
amongst the nations of the West ; and instead of 
becoming more and more civilised and free, they 
would by degrees, have sunk into mere slaves to their 
princes, caring only for pleasure and ease. The 
Greeks were more admired and imitated than any 
other people, and from them, learning and taste, and 
a knowledge of the fine arts, have spread over the 
world, and have been brought down to our own 
days. We may well therefore be thankful for the 
Providence which prevented their falling under the 
power of the Persians, and so ordered events, that 
the general good of mankind should be provided for, 
by what must have seemed, at the time, merely a 
succession of accidental circumstances. 

The person who, next to Xerxes, felt the most 
grieved at the loss of the battle of Salamis, was Mar- 
donius, his cousin and the chief commander of his 
armies. It was Mardonius who had especially 
urged the Persian monarch to undertake the expe- 
dition against Greece, and now he besan to feel that 
he should be reproached for its failure. He did not, 
however, confess his regret openly, but knowing the 
king's disposition, and being quite sure that Xerxea 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 109 

would only be too willing to have an excuse for re- 
turning to Persia, since he had been so humbled in 
Greece, he went to him and entreated him not to 
let his spirits be cast down by the loss of a few 
ships. " The Persians," he said, " were not used to 
rely on frail planks, but on men and horses for vic- 
tory. Their arms were still as irresistible as ever 
on their proper element. Let the king but make 
the trial by advancing into Peloponnesus, and he 
would see that the Greek sailors, however proud 
they were of their triumph, would none of them 
dare to land and meet him. If, however, he was 
satisfied with the display he had made of his power, 
and thought it time to return to Persia, Mardonius 
himself, if he were permitted to select 300,000 
troops from the army, would undertake to complete 
the conquest of Greece." Xerxes was much pleased 
at the proposal. He pretended to consult with 
Artemisia, queen of Caria, though it is probable he 
would not have listened to her, if she had given 
him advice against his wishes ; but, as it happened, 
she quite agreed with his views, and the plans were 
soon arranged. The children of Xerxes were en- 
trusted to the charge of Artemisia, who immediately 
set sail for Ephesus : and orders were given to the 
fleet to make its way to the Hellespont with all 
speed, and guard the bridges till the king's arrival. 
Xerxes himself set out on his return by land ; 
his movements being much hastened by a secret 
message sent him by Themistocles, to warn him 
that the Greeks had a plan of sailing themselves to 
the Hellespont, and destroying the bridges, and so 
to cut off his retreat. The fact was, that the idea 
had been suggested, but was laid aside, as it was 
thought better not to drive the Persian king to des- 
peration, and force him to remain in Greece, when 
he was evidently anxious to leave it. 
10 



110 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Mardonius accompanied Xerxes to Thessaly, 
There he was to take up his winter quarters, and in 
the spring the war was to be renewed. 

The retreat of Xerxes was a miserable contrast 
to the proud grandeur of his first setting forth. In- 
stead of a glittering host of soldiers, marching bold- 
ly forward and certain of success, his followers were, 
in appearance, a crowd without order, weakened by 
want and illness. No one had been eareful to keep 
up the supplies for the magazines, at the places 
through which they had passed when they entered 
Greece ; so that there was a great lack of provi- 
sions ; the inhabitants of the towns and villages 
were quite unable to feed such a multitude, and the 
unhappy Persians were at last obliged to eat the 
grass in the fields, and the bark and leaves of trees. 
Such unwholesome food naturally brought on dread- 
ful diseases, and numbers were obliged to be left 
behind, to be taken care of by the people of the 
country. Very many also perished by a terrible 
accident which happened upon the river Strymon, 
in Thrace. The river was frozen over when they 
reached it : those who came first, at night, crossed 
it easily ; but the next morning the heat of the sun 
began to melt the ice, and when the soldiers ven- 
tured upon it, it suddenly gave way, and multitudes 
perished in the waters. 

It took Xerxes forty -five days to travel from 
Thessaly, where he had left Mardonius, tc the Helles- 
pont. He found on his arrival that a storm had 
broken up the bridges, but his fleet was in readiness 
to carry the troops over to Abydos, and there they 
enjoyed rest and plenty. The change, however, 
was not of as much service as might have been ex- 
pected. The poor famished people, by eating too 
eagerly, did themselves a great deal of harm ; and 
when at length the army reached Sardis, it could be 



HISTORY OF GREECE. Ill 

called nothing but a wreck or fragment of the vast 
host which had set forth to conquer Greece. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE BATTLE OF PLAT^BA. 
b. c. 479. 

Themistocles and the fleet pursued the Persians 
by sea a little way, the day after the battle of Sa- 
lamis ; but being unable to approach near, they gave 
up the attempt to overtake them, and contented 
themselves with going to some of the Greek islands 
which were known to have given assistance to the 
enemy, and forcing them to pay considerable sums 
of money as a punishment for their offence. Andros 
was one of these islands. When Themistocles de- 
manded a contribution from the inhabitants, he told 
them that the Athenians had brought two powerful 
Deities to second their demand, — Persuasion and 
Force. The Andrians however replied, that they 
also had a pair of ill-conditioned Deities, who would 
not leave their island, or let them comply with the 
will of the Athenians, — Poverty and Inability. The 
Greeks in consequeDce laid siege to Andros, but 
they were not able to take it ; so Poverty and Ina- 
bility proved in the end too strong for Persuasion 
and Force. 

Themistocles was now in the highest favour with 
e7ery one. It was allowed by all that his foresight 
and prudence had been the chief causes of success, 
next to the favour of the gods. The best of the 
spoils which had been taken from the enemy were 
dedicated to the temple at Delphi, or at least their 
value was given in the form of an immense statue 



112 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

larger than life. When this was done, the Greek 
commanders met in the temple of Poseidon, or Nep- 
tune, on the Isthmus, to settle who amongst them 
had distinguished himself the most. Not one of 
them was noble enough to give up the claim of the 
first rank for himself; but almost every one agreed 
that Themistocles ought to be placed second, which 
of course was really owning his superiority to all. 
Shortly afterwards Themistocles went to Sparta, 
where he was presented with an olive crown for his 
wisdom, whilst Eurybiades received another for his 
bravery. The Spartans also gave Themistocles the 
best chariot in the city, and sent 300 knights to 
escort him to the frontiers of their state on his re- 
turn. 

These, however, were affairs which concerned 
only a few persons. That which was of the most 
consequence to the common people, was the task of 
resettling themselves in their homes, and recovering, 
if possible, from the effects of the terrible invasion. 
The Athenians went back to Athens shortly after 
the battle of Salamis, hoping they might now be 
permitted to repair their houses, and cultivate 
their fields ; but they were 3 as yet, by no means 
safe. 

Mardonius and his army were in Thessaly ; and 
although no attempt was made to renew the war 
during the winter, yet when the spring came, they 
were obliged again to prepare for meeting their 
deadly enemy, 

Their first trial, however, was to resist a tempt- 
ing proposal for peace. Early in the season, an 
ambassador arrived at Athens from the Persian 
general, bearing a proposal which Xerxes himself 
had commanded Mardonius to make. " The Per- 
sian king," he said, " was ready to forget past of- 
fences, to secure the Athenians in the unmolested 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 113 

possession of their territory, and to add to it any 
other they might covet. He would also undertake 
to rebuild all the temples which he had burnt in 
their city ; and in return he desired only that the 
Athenians should be his friends. He did not wish 
them to be his subjects, but his allies." 

The tidings of this embassy to Athens soon 
reached the ears of the other Grecian states. The 
Spartans, especially, were alarmed at it. If Athens 
sided with Persia, the inhabitants of Peloponnesus 
could not long hope to be free. 

An ambassador was instantly despatched to 
Athens, to remind the Athenians of the duty they 
owed to Greece, and recall to their minds the glory 
they had gained in the late war. " The Spartans," 
said the envoy, " felt for the distress which the 
Athenians had suffered from the Persian invasion, 
and would do their utmost to help them for the fu- 
ture. They would maintain the families of the 
Athenians, as long as the war lasted, at their own 
expense ; and Athens would do wrongly in prefer- 
ring the hollow promises of the barbarians to those 
of friends and natural allies." 

The reply given to this advice at once satisfied 
the Spartans, and showed the ambassador of Mar- 
donius that it was in vain to try and bribe the 
Athenians to desert the cause of Greece. " So long 
as the sun held his course, Athens," it was said, 
" would never come to terms with Xerxes. Enor- 
mous as his power was, she would continue to defy 
it, relying on the gods and the heroes whose temples 
and images he had burnt and defaced." 

With regard to the offer of assistance made by 
the Spartans, the Athenians were grateful, but de- 
clined to accept it. They had no wish to be a bur- 
den, and it was not the kind of aid which they 
needed. They begged, however, that the Spartans 



114 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

would put their forces in motion without delay, to 
meet Mardonius in Boeotia, as on receiving the an- 
swer just given he would, probably, immediately in- 
vade Attica. 

The Spartan ambassador departed ; but if the 
Athenians really wanted to obtain help from Sparta, 
they must have been grievously disappointed. Mar- 
donius set out on his march as soon as he received 
their proud message. He entered Boeotia, and 
found no one to oppose him. The Boeotians were 
his friends, and readily welcomed him. The Spar- 
tans, caring only for themselves, set to work to 
build fortifications across the Isthmus of Corinth, 
but never thought of sending troops beyond it ; and 
the Athenians, at last, knowing themselves to be 
far too weak to oppose Mardonius without aid from 
the other states, once more fled from Athens, and 
took refuge in the island of Salamis. 

Ten months after the taking of Athens by Xerx- 
es, the city was again in the hands of the Persians 
under Mardonius. The Persian commander sent 
directly to Salamis to offer the same terms of peace 
which had been proposed before ; but even then, in 
such great peril, the Athenians were not to be 
moved from their resolution. Only one man in the 
council dared to propose that they should yield, and 
he was terribly punished for his weakness. When 
he quitted the house where the council was assem- 
bled, the common people gathered round him, and 
in their fury stoned him to death ; and, what was 
far more shocking, the Athenian women rushed in 
a body to his house, and murdered his innocent 
wife and children. 

It is not to be imagined that the Athenians 
would allow the Spartans to continue their selfish 
eonduct without complaint. They sent an embassy 
to Sparta, in which the people of Megara and Pla- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 115 

fceea joined, to reproach the Spartans with their ne- 
glect, and to beg them once more to assist in driv- 
ing the barbarians from Attica. The ambassadors, 
on their arrival, found the Spartans engaged in 
celebrating a great public festival as quietly and 
easily as if nothing was amiss. The Ephors, who 
were the persons chiefly to decide these questions 
of war, declined giving them an answer till the 
morrow, and when the morrow came, they still put 
it off, on pretence that they were engaged with the 
festival. So it went on for ten days, till the Athe- 
nian ambassadors were quite weary ; but, at length, 
when they began to threaten that Athens would 
become the ally of Persia, and give up the cause of 
Greece, if some help was not afforded, they were 
told that an army had been sent out secretly, and 
had probably, by that time, reached Arcadia. 

This was actually the case, and the envoys, as 
soon as they were convinced of it, followed in all 
haste, accompanied by 5000 soldiers from amongst 
the best of the Lacedaemonian troops. 

Mardonius soon heard of the forces which were 
advancing against him. Upon consideration, it 
seemed better not to wait for them in Attica, but 
to return to Boeotia, where the people were all his 
friends. He accordingly left Athens ; but before 
his departure, he allowed his soldiers to plunder, 
ravage, and destroy everything which came in their 
way. Up to that time, he had still fancied it might 
be possible to bring over the Athenians to his side, 
and therefore had forbidden his men to do any in- 
jury to their houses or lands, thinking that the hope 
of saving their property might be an inducement 
to the citizens to agree to his terms. 

The Persian army retreated quickly from Atti- 
ca, followed by the Spartans and their allies, under 
the command of Pausanias, a nephew of Leonidas, 



116 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

and the guardian of his son, the young king of Spar* 
ta. On entering Boeotia, Mardonius found every 
one friend iy to him, but he was not so confident of 
victory now, as not to guard against a defeat. On 
the contrary, he enclosed his treasures within a high 
wooden wall guarded by towers; and this kind of 
fortification he intended also to serve as a refuge, 
in case the Greek army shouid prove superior to 
his own. Whilst this work was going on, one of 
the principal men at Thebes, in order to show his 
kind feeling for the Persians, invited Mardonius 
and fifty of his chief officers to a great entertain- 
ment in the city of Thebes. Fifty Thebans were 
invited to meet them ; and as it was the custom of 
the Greeks, as well as of the Romans, to lie upon 
couches when they took their meals, it was arranged 
that one of each nation, a Persian and a Theban 
together, should share every couch. This was to 
prove their friendliness ; and certainly they do not 
seem to have had any distrust of each other ; for 
Herodotus, a famous Greek historian, afterwards 
met one of the Thebans who had been invited to the 
entertainment, and was told by him, that the Per- 
sian who shared his couch on that occasion, talked 
to him privately of the battle that was likely soon 
to take place, and confessed that he looked forward 
to it with the greatest anxiety, fearing that the 
Spartans and their allies would gain the victory. 

Yet the Persians were still three times more in 
number than the Greeks, and ought properly there- 
fore, to have had no fears. They had been taught, 
however, by this time, that valor and determined 
resolution have more to do with victory than mere 
numbers ; and the next engagement with the Greeks, 
proved the same fact still more strongly. The 
Greeks and Persians met at the foot of Cithoeron, a 
rugged mountain in Boeotia, where an engagement 



HISTORY OF GPJEECE. 117 

took place between the Spartan horsemen and some 
of the Persians, in which the Spartans had the ad- 
vantage, and one of the Persian commanders, a par- 
ticularly fine, handsome officer, was killed. His 
horse was wounded by an arrow, and reared and 
threw him. The Athenians, who were assisting the 
Spartans, rushed forward to slay him, but he wore 
a gold scale corselet or body-piece, which protected 
him, and he might perhaps have escaped, if some 
one had not pierced his eye, and so destroyed him. 

The whole Persian army paid him funeral hon- 
ours. They not only shaved their own heads, but 
cut off the tails of their horses and beasts of burden ; 
and, Herodotus says, that their wailing resounded 
throughout all Boeotia. Yet they could not get 
possession of his body, which was carried off by the 
Greeks ; and being afterwards placed in a cart, was 
drawn along the lines whilst the men ran out from 
their ranks, to gaze upon the gigantic barbarian. 

Pausanias, after this victory, moved his forces 
to the banks of a river about two miles distance 
from the town of Platsea, where he thought that he 
should be better supplied with water than in his 
former position. Mardonius and the Persians en- 
camped on the opposite banks, but neither army 
was willing to begin a regular battle. The Spar- 
tan soothsayers declared that the gods were not yet 
favourable, and the Greek soothsayers, on the Per- 
sian side said the same. It is strange to hear of a 
Persian general listening to a Greek diviner, but 
the Persians seem to have had a great belief in the 
Greek superstitions. One of these diviners had been 
induced to come over to their side, partly because 
of a bribe which had been offered him, and partly 
because he hated the Spartans, who had once 
thrown him into a dungeon, and put his feet into 
stocks. He escaped, but only by cutting off the 



118 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

fore part of his own foot, and in spite of the wound, 
breaking through the prison wall, and travelling by 
night, and hiding himself in the woods by day, till 
he reached a place of safety. 

Ten days passed, and still no favourable omen 
could be obtained, and Mardonius then resolved to 
follow his own judgment. He told his intention to 
Artabazus, one of the other commanders, but Arta- 
bazus tried to dissuade him from it, saying " that 
he had much better go back to Thebes, instead of 
risking a battle. There were magazines at Thebes 
to supply the soldiers, and if Mardonius would give 
large presents to the leading men in the Grecian 
cities, no doubt they would soon be induced to join 
him. 5 ' Mardonius was a very eager, impetuous 
person, and would not listen to this advice. He 
called a council of the Persian officers and those of 
his Greek allies, and tried to persuade them that 
the gods would not be unfavourable to the Persians, 
because they had spared the temple at Delphi ; 
then bidding them dismiss all scruples, he told 
them to prepare cheerfully for battle the next day. 

In the dead of the following night, a horseman 
rode up to the outposts of the Greek camp, and de- 
sired to speak with the Athenian generals. On being 
admitted, he discovered himself to be the ambas- 
sador who had been before sent by Mardonius to 
ask for the alliance of Athens. He was a Mace- 
donian prince, an old friend of the Athenians, and 
now he was come to warn them of their danger, at 
the risk of his own life. " Mardonius," he said, 
" was determined to give them battle the next morn- 
ing notwithstanding the unfavourable omens. It 
was possible, however, that the engagement would 
be delayed, in which case he exhorted them still to 
keep their ground, as the Persians had only a few 
days' provisions left, and would soon be obliged to 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 119 

retire." In return for this information, the Mace* 
donian prince prayed them to remember his good 
will if the cause of Greece triumphed, and then 
rode away. 

The next day went by, and the Persians gave 
no signs of being ready for a general battle, though 
they made an attack upon the Spartans, and took 
possession of a spring of water. The loss of this 
fountain was a serious misfortune, for the Persian 
horsemen prevented the Greeks from procuring 
water from the river, and Pausanias found it 
would be impossible to remain in such a position 
any longer. Having consulted with the other 
generals, it was agreed that they must move as soon 
as possible ; and, accordingly when night came, the 
greater part marched to Plateea, and posted them- 
selves close to the town. Pausanias, and his fellow- 
commanders were detained ; for a Spartan, named 
Amompharetus, who had not been present at the 
council, had fancied that this movement was intend- 
ed for flight, and considering it a disgrace, steadily 
refused to go, though Pausanias urged him most 
earnestly to consent, knowing that he and his 
soldiers must be killed if they remained behind. 
The Athenians, being surprised at the delay, sent 
to learn the cause of it, and to ask what they had 
better do themselves, as they were waiting to go 
with the Spartans. Their messenger came up just 
whilst the dispute was going on. Amompharetus 
was still quite determined, and taking up a large 
stone with both hands, he flung.it down at the feet of 
Pausanias, exclaiming, " There is my vote against 
flying before the strangers." Pausanias called 
him a madman, and sent a message to the Athe- 
nians, ordering them to bring up their forces and 
follow him ; but nothing that he could say had any 
effect upon Amompharetus, and at last in despair. 



120 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Pausanias was obliged to leave him. After march- 
ing about a mile, however, Pausanias stopped, hoping 
that Amompharetus would change his mind when 
he found himself left alone with his small body of 
troops. And so it really happened. After a little 
while they saw him coming slowly after them ; but, 
in consequence of the delay, some of the Persian 
horsemen were able to overtake them, and trouble 
them, as they had done before, with skirmishes and 
slight attacks. 

A battle was now very near at hand. When 
Mardonius heard that the Greeks had retreated 
during the night, he scoffed at the notion of their 
bravery, and declared that Xerxes should be told 
of the. cowardly counsel of Artabazus, who had ad- 
vised him to retire before such men ; and he lost 
no time in crossing the river with his whole army, 
and following the .road which the Greeks had taken. 

The Spartans were the first whom he came up 
with, and they were, in consequence, the first to be 
attacked. The Athenians could not give any assist- 
ance, though Pausanias sent a horseman forward to 
tell them what was going on ; for just about the 
same time, some of the Greek allies of the Persians 
were approaching them, and they were obliged to 
defend themselves. Even then the Spartans would 
not begin to fight without being told by the sooth- 
sayers that the gods were favourable to them. Ani- 
mals were sacrificed, and the diviners began to ex- 
amine them, as was their custom, to see if they 
could discover, by .their appearance after death, 
what would be considered a favourable omen. 
Whilst this was being done, Pausanias ordered his 
men to seat themselves on the ground, and, hold- 
ing their long shields before them, to wait till the 
gods should give the signal for battle. The Per- 
sians came nearer and nearer, till at last they were 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 121 

within "bowshot. Then they fixed the wicker shields 
which they used into the ground, so as to form a 
sort of screen for themselves, and shot their arrows 
at the Spartans. Not one of the Spartans moved. 
One man particularly famed for his beauty was 
amongst them, but he, as well as his companions, 
steadily faced the shower of arrows, and at length 
died, lamenting only that he had not been able to 
raise his arm in the defence of his country. 

Pausanias was in great distress ; but at length 
the soothsayers pronounced that the favourable 
omen had been discovered, and the Spartans sprang 
up and rushed forward. The Persians fought 
bravely, but they were unable to resist the strength 
of the Spartan arms. Mardonius, mounted on a 
stately white charger, and distinguished by his glit- 
tering armour, was foremost in the fight ; a thou- 
sand chosen men, a portion of the royal guards, 
surrounded him, but no valour and no protection 
could save him. Whilst the victory was yet doubt- 
ful, a Spartan soldier attacked him, wounded him 
mortally, and the event of the battle was decided. 
The Persians fled when they knew that their com- 
mander was slain. They took refuge in the forti- 
fied camp which Mardonius had prepared, barred 
the gates, and manned the towers and the walls ; 
but they were followed closely by the Greeks, who 7 
after some difficulty, forced away the wooden de- 
fences and entered the camp. The Persians were 
now enclosed within a narrow space, like sheep 
crowded into a sheepfold. They had neither spirit 
nor power to defend themselves, and the Greeks, 
maddened by the recollection of their own losses, 
killed them without mercy. It is supposed that 
only 3,000 of those who had retreated to the camp 
escaped ; but a large body of 40,000 men, under 
Artabazus. who had not arrived at the field of bat- 
il 



122 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

tie till the victory was lost, saved themselves by 
taking the road to Pkocis, and then retreating, with 
the utmost possible haste, to the Hellespont. The 
treasures found in the Persian camp were of im- 
mense value ; the furniture of the tents glittered 
with gold and silver, and even the common vessels, 
used every day, were made of the same precious 
metals. The bracelets, collars, and rich suits of 
armour were innumerable ; and, amongst other 
things, the Greeks took possession of the manger 
of Xerxes' horse, which was made of brass, curious- 
ly wrought. We are told that when Pausanias en- 
tered the tent of Mardonius, and saw the rich cur- 
tains, and soft carpets and couches, and the tables 
covered with vessels of gold and silver, he ordered 
some Persian slaves to prepare a banquet, such as 
they would have made ready for their own masters. 
As soon as it was ready, he commanded his own 
Helots to set by its side the simple food to which 
he was himself accustomed ; and summoning the 
Greek officers, bade them mark the folly of the 
barbarian, who, when he had already such great 
wealth, and was able to enjoy so much luxury, 
thought it worth while to dome and rob the Greeks 
of their simple store. 

Thus was Greece at last delivered from her 
powerful enemies. Artabazus, indeed, reached Asia 
in safety, but a part of his army perished on the 
road from hunger, and from the attacks of the bar- 
barous Thracian tribes, through whose country they 
were obliged to pass. To complete the triumph of 
the Greeks, a great victory was gained over the 
Persians by the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, on 
the very same day that the battle of Platasa took 
place, b. c. 479. These colonies had been obliged 
to assist Xerxes in his expedition ; but the people 
were in their hearts Greeks, and not Persians, and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 123 

there was always reason to doubt whether they 
would be thoroughly faithful to the Persian king. 
During the time of the war, the European Greeks 
had tried to bring the Asiatic Greeks over to their 
side. For instance, after the battle by sea. at Ar- 
teinisium, when the Greek fleet retired, Themisto 
cles ordered sentences to be engraved upon a rock 
near, calling upon the lonians in the Persian arm} 
to leave the Persians and support the people from 
whom they originally came. The lonians remained 
steadfast at that* time ; but when Xerxes was de- 
feated at Salamis, there seemed a good opportunity 
for some of the Asiatic Greeks, und the people of 
the Greek islands, who were subject to Persia, to 
free themselves from the Persian yoke. They 
were encouraged in this notion by the presence of 
a Greek fleet, commanded by one of the Spartan 
kings, which was stationed near the coasts, and 
would, they were sure, be willing to help them. 
The lonians did not openly revolt, but the people 
of the island of Samos did, and the Spartans as- 
sisted them, and afterwards sailed to Ionia, hoping 
that the inhabitants of that colony would join them. 
A Persian army was ready to oppose them there, 
and amongst the forces were many lonians. The 
Spartan king, wishing, like Themistocles, to make 
the lonians declare themselves on the Greek side., 
addressed a proclamation to them by a herald, 
calling upon them to remember the liberty of their 
country. Soon afterwards, a battle took place at 
Mycale, and the lonians, seeing that the Greeks 
were gaining the victory, deserted to them, and as- 
sisted in completely defeating the Persians. This 
was the victory which was gained on the same day 
that the battle of Plataea was fought. 

The islands of the iEgean Sea were now entirely 
united to Greece, and permitted to join in a union 



124 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

i 

or confederacy of the Greek states ; but the Ioni- 
ans were left to make therr peace with Persia as 
they could, for there was no way of protecting them, 
except by keeping an army in their country, which 
was impossible. The Grecian fleet divided after 
the viciory at Mycale ; the Spartans went home, 
but the Athenians made up their minds to try and 
recover what had once been the dominions of Mil- 
tiades, in the Chersonesus. They accordingly laid 
Biege to S est os ; and, after spending all the winter 
in endeavouring to take it, at last succeeded. 

We must now return to the Greeks at Plataea, 
whose chief thought, when they found themselves 
delivered from their enemies, was to show their 
thankfulness to the gods, whom they believed had 
aided them in the struggle. A tenth part of the 
spoils was set apart for the temple at Delphi, and 
was formed into a golden tripod. There were sev- 
eral kinds of tripods used by the Greeks ; some 
were employed for common purposes, and were 
merely tables, supported by three legs ; others 
were pots, resting upon three legs, used for boiling 
meat ; but the tripods given to the temples were 
often employed as movable altars. 

There was one tripod, especially famous, at 
Delphi, on which the priestess stood when she 
delivered the oracles of the god. The tripod, 
which was presented to the temple by the Greeks, 
after the battle of Platsea, was in the form of a 
golden ball, supported by a three-headed bronze 
serpent. It was preserved for a great number of 
years, and, as late as a. d. 1675, — in the reign of 
our Charles II. — the bronze serpent is said to have 
been seen by a traveller at Constantinople. The 
bowl had been removed from it. The serpent waa 
fourteen or fifteen feet high. 

Another portion of the Persian spoils was given 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 125 

to the great temple of Zeus, at Olympia. This 
was in the form of an enormous statue of the god, 
on the base of which was engraved the names of 
the cities whose inhabitants had shared in the con- 
test. A statue was also given to the temple of 
Poseidon, on the Isthmus, and a large sum was 
reserved to enable the Plataeans to build a temple 
to Athene ; for, whatever was the ignorance and 
superstition of the Greeks, they still were wise 
enough to know that there was a power mighfcier 
than their own watching over and defending them ; 
and they would have scorned to receive great ben- 
efits, and not to show their gratitude for them to 
the utmost of their power. Neither were they for- 
getful of those who had died in defence of their 
country. Barrows or mounds were raised over 
them, and this was considered such a distinction, 
that even the cities which had not lost men in the 
battle raised mounds, by the side of those who^had 
actually fallen, to commemorate their share in the 
victory. Amongst those slain at Plataea, was the 
Spartan who escaped from Thermopylae. He fought 
dauntlessly, and fell as he had wished, making 
amends for his former weakness. But the Spartans 
could not forget that he sought death because he 
had once loved life too dearly, and they paid no 
honours to his memory. The Thebans, having 
assisted the Persians, were obliged to give up the 
chief persons who had encouraged them to do so, 
and the offenders were put to death. 

Pausanias received, as his reward, ten samples 
of every thing that was most valuable amongst the 
spoils. He showed a noble spirit after the victory; 
for, when it was suggested to him to impale the 
dead body of Mardonius, because Xerxes had in- 
sulted that of Leonidas at Thermopylae, he indig- 
nantly rejected the proposal, saying, " that victims 



126 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

enough had fallen to appease the shades of Leonl< 
das and the heroes of Thermopylae." 

But, although much praise is doubtless due to 
the Spartan general and the "brave soldiers, there 
was one person present at Platsea to whom, perhaps, 
more real credit is due than to any one else. This 
was Aristides, whose moderation, unselfishness, and 
excellent temper had great influence over the 
Athenians, and induced them to behave in the 
most admirable manner in the midst of all their 
difficulties and hardships ; for they showed no 
jealousy of the Spartans, but seemed quite to for- 
get themselves, and only to be desirous of doing 
what would be best for all. Before the army 
broke up, Aristides took advantage of the good 
feeling which, at such a moment, prevailed, to per- 
suade the Greek leaders to unite together more 
closely than they had ever done before. They 
agreed to keep up an army of 10,000 men-at-arms, 
and 1000 horsemen, besides a fleet of 100 galleys, 
to prosecute the war against the barbarians. It was 
settled that deputies should be sent every year to 
Platsea, from the different states, to consult about 
public affairs, and to celebrate the anniversary of 
the battle of Platsea with religious rites ; and every 
fifth year a festival was to be held there, called the 
Feast of Liberty. It was also agreed to erect an 
altar on the spot to Zeus, under the title of the 
Deliverer ; but, before the first sacrifice was offered 
on it, the Delphic oracle commanded that all the 
fires in the country should be put out, as having 
been polluted by the presence of the barbarians ; 
and that they should be re-lighted from what was 
considered the national hearth, at Delphi. In obe- 
dience to this command, a Platsean ran from the 
camp to Delphi, a distance of sixty miles, to fetch 
the sacred fire, and returned with it the same day; 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 127 

but he had scarcely time to deliver it, before he fell 
down dead. He was buried in a consecrated place, 
and an inscription near his grave told what he had 
done. 

The Piataeans undertook to offer the sacrifices 
which were instituted in remembrance of the deliv- 
erance of Greece, and also to pay respect to the 
memory of the brave men who had fallen in the 
battle : and, as long as they did this, their land 
was to be considered sacred. Many years after- 
wards, about the time of the Roman emperor 
Nero, Plutarch, the biographer, a native of Bceotia, 
who wrote the lives of many of the most celebrated 
persons of ancient days, described the ceremonies 
which were still used in honour of the heroes of the 
battle of Platsea. A martial procession marched, 
he says, at break of day, to the sound of trumpet, 
through the midst of the city, followed by waggons, 
filled with myrtle boughs and chaplets ; then came 
the black bull which was to be sacrificed, and a 
number of young men, freemen (for no slaves were 
allowed to bear a part in these ceremonies), carry- 
ing the vessels which held the libations or drink 
offerings for the dead. Last of all came the chief 
magistrate, the archon, dressed in a purple tunic, 
and carrying a sword in his hand ; though, at other 
times, he always wore white, and was not allowed 
to touch a weapon. The archon bore an urn, which 
was kept especially for this occasion. When the 
procession reached the burial ground, the archon 
washed and anointed the tombstones, and then sac- 
rificed the victim, and poured out the libation ; and, 
having prayed to the gods who were supposed to 
watch over the dead, he solemnly invited the brave 
men who had fallen in defence of their country to 
share the banquet which, as a mark of gratitude, 
nad been provided for them. This was according 



128 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

to the idea which the Greeks had of a future state, 
They had no notion of a life different from that of 
this world, and all their talents and learning were 
of no use in teaching them the truths which it most 
concerned their happiness to know. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE REBUILDING AJSD FORTIFICATION OF ATHENS. 
b. c. 4T8. 

When the Athenians returned to their homes they 
found their lands wasted, and their houses in ruins, 
with the exception of a few which had been occu- ' 
pied by the principal Persians. They immediately 
set to work to restore them, but, as every person 
was allowed to follow his own wishes, there was no 
regularity in the streets ; and the houses were 
small and mean, and built with such ugly and in- 
convenient projections, that, after a time, Themis- 
tocles and Aristides prevailed upon the Court of 
Areopagus to insist upon their being altered. 
Even then, Athens could not be made a handsome 
city. The temples which had been destroyed were 
still left in ruins, as Aristides and Themistocles 3 
who were the persons of greatest influence in the 
state, were anxious to fortify the city before they 
did anything else. But the temple of Athene, in 
the Acropolis, was still safe ; and in it was placed 
the silver-footed throne, on which Xerxes sat when 
he watched the battle of Salamis, together with a 
golden poignard taken from Mardonius at the bat- 
tle of Platsea. 

The Spartans, who were always jealous of the 
power of Athens, no sooner understood that the 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 129 

Athenians were rebuilding their walls strongly, and 
enclosing a larger space than before, than they be- 
gan to take alarm. Ambassadors were sent to 
Athens with a message which sounded very friendly, 
but which in reality was full of envy. " Instead 
of raising new walls," said the Spartans, " which 
would only serve to shelter the barbarians in a 
fresh invasion, the Athenians would do much better 
in assisting to throw down all the walls north of 
the Isthmus ; for they might be sure of a refuge at 
any time in the Peloponnesus." 

The Athenians were too quick to be deceived 
by this pretence of kindness. They saw at once 
that Sparta wished to become chief herself, and did 
not like anything which would tend to make Athens 
strong. 

Themistocles undertook to go himself to Sparta, 
and carry back an answer, and the envoys were dis- 
missed. 

Themistocles set out on his journey ; but, on 
his arrival at Sparta, he delayed asking an audience 
of the ephors so long that they sent to know the 
cause. " I am waiting," replied Themistocles, " for 
my colleagues, whom I left behind to despatch some 
very urgent business ; but I expect them daily, and 
hoped to have seen them before." This excuse sat- 
isfied the Spartans, till they were told that all this 
time the Athenians were actually at work at the 
walls, which were rising rapidly. Themistocles 
begged them not to listen to reports so easily, but 
to send messengers themselves to discover if they 
were true. Some of the gravest and most trust- 
worthy Spartans were accordingly sent to Athens ; 
but they were not allowed to return, for Themis- 
tocles gave a secret message at the same time, bid- 
ding the Athenians quietly to detain them, till he 
should go back to Athens himself. Whilst all this 



130 HISTOE,Y OF GREECE. 

was passing, men, women, and children were at 
work at Athens rebuilding the walls, which were 
soon high enough to stand a siege. The report of 
their progress was forwarded to Themistocles by 
Aristides and another ambassador; and Themis- 
tocles then begged for an audience of the Spartan 
governors, and after telling them that the fortifica- 
tions were too far advanced to be stopped, advised 
them,' when next they sent ambassadors 'to Athens, 
to deal with the Athenians as with reasonable men, 
who knew what was necessary for their own safety, 
and for the interests of Greece. The Athenians, 
he said, " had not needed the counsels of the Spar- 
tans when they left their city, and committed 
themselves to their ships ; and they thought they 
might now trust their own judgment in rebuilding 
their walls." 

The Spartans were very clever in concealing 
their feelings. So they only expressed their regret 
that the Athenians shQuld have misunderstood the 
motive of their suggestions; and the ambassadors 
on both sides returned home, without any further 
complaints or reproaches. The city walls were 
quietly completed, but any person who examined 
. them could see how hastily and strangely they had 
been put together ; for the Athenians, m their 
eagerness had pulled down houses and sacred build- 
ings, and everything which could be used for ma- 
terials, without considering whether what they 
destroyed was beautiful, or useful, or valuable. A 
traveller in Greece, in 1850, describes the remains 
of these walls as still existing, and says that they 
are made of fragments of temples, houses, &c.* 

The next object of Themistocles was to fortify 
the ports and harbours near the town, for he began 

* Picturesque Sketches in Greece, by Aubrey de Vere. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 131 

to see that the chief power and safety of the Athe« 
nians would be found in their ships. Before this 
time there, had been only one small harbour, called 
Phalerum, but Themistocles now proposed to forti- 
fy three. Piraeus was the chief; it was not quite 
so close to Athens as Phalerum, but it soon grew 
to be of great importance, and became a town in 
itself. Themistocles caused a large space round it 
to be enclosed by a strong wall, and sent for an 
architect to plan out the streets; and soon there 
were temples built in it, and a market-place, and a 
theatre ; and at last it was a much handsomer 
town than Athens, and became the great resort of 
foreigners, and of all persons whose business con- 
nected them with the sea. From Piraeus to Phale- 
rum there was another strong wall built along the 
sea shore ; and this helped also to guard the third 
port, Munychia, by which it passed. The wall was 
sixty feet high, and broad enough to allow of two 
waggons standing on it abreast of each other. 
It was the great wish of Themistocles to make the 
Athenians depend on their sea forces ; and he is 
said to have changed the seats on the hill, where 
the people held their public assemblies, in order 
that they might- look towards the sea and the har- 
bour, instead of the land and the rock of the 
Acropolis ; and so might be accustomed to think 
of the power of their navy rather than of their 
armies. And now the time was come when a trial of 
power was to be made between the two great Grecian 
states, Athens and Sparta. Their strength seemed 
about equal ; for, although Themistocles and the 
Athenians had first distinguished themselves in de- 
feating the Persians at Salamis, Pausanias, the 
victorious general at Plataea, and the regent of 
Sparta, was the man who seemed to have had the 
greatest share in finally freeing Greece from her 



1S2 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

invaders. It was to him that the command of the 
allied fleet was given, when it was again sent out 
to carry on the war against the Persians on their 
own shores. This was in the year after the expe- 
dition made by the Athenians to recover the do- 
minion of Miltiades in the Chersonesus. Thirty 
Athenian vessels formed part of the fleet, and 
these were commanded by Aristides, and by Cimon, 
the son of Miltiades, who was celebrated for his 
talents and virtues. 

The Greeks sailed to Cyprus, which belonged 
to Persia, and conquered the greater part of the 
island ; and then they laid siege to Byzantium, 
now Constantinople, and soon took it. Whilst the 
allied Greeks remained near this place, they began 
to perceive a great change in the character of Pau- 
sanias : or rather, they discovered the faults which 
no doubt he had before, but which there had not 
been much opportunity to display. Instead of be- 
ing gentle and courteous, he became haughty and 
disagreeable, and treated his allies as if they were 
his subjects ; whilst he took pains to follow the cus- 
toms of the Persians, as if he despised those of his 
own nation. He had shown something of this dis- 
position before, after the battle of Platgea ; for he 
was then vain enough to have his own name in- 
scribed upon the tripod which was given to the 
temple at Delphi, together with some verses, which 
attributed the victory, and the offering to himself. 
The Spartans caused the inscription to be effaced, 
and the names of the cities whose soldiers had as- 
sisted them engraved in its stead ; yet this did not 
do away with the folly and conceit of such an ac- 
tion. It was evident now that Pausanias was tired 
of being chief only in a small Grecian state ; and 
people began to suspect that he was inclined to make 
friends with the Persian king, in the hope of obtain- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 133 

ing some government under him, which might give 
him greater riches and grandeur. In Sparta he 
would, in a few years, become a private person, be- 
cause he was only regent and the guardian of the 
young king ; and this was an idea which he was too 
proud and ambitious to be likely to bear patiently. 
But if his discontent was natural, considering his 
great ambition, his want of caution was very sur- 
prising. By the help of some prisoners of rank 
whom he had taken at Byzantium, he sent messages 
to Xerxes, offering to make the Persian monarch 
Lord of Greece, if he would only give him his 
daughter in marriag'e. Xerxes seemed inclined to 
listen to the proposals. Pausanias then threw off 
all disguise, and took upon himself the pomp and 
state of a Persian nobleman, wore a Persian dress, 
ate and drank in the same way, and with the same 
luxury, as the Persians, and at length actually tra- 
velled through Thrace, escorted by a guard of Per- 
sians and Egyptians. Such conduct, as might well 
have been anticipated, was exceedingly irritating 
to the Greeks, and especially to the colonies in Asia 
Minor, who had just thrown off the Persian yoke, 
but who now found that Pausanias was likely to be 
quite as severe a master as Xerxes. 

They bore with him as long as they could, but 
they could not help thinking that it would be much 
happier for every one, if Aristides, who was so mild 
and just, or Cimon, who was remarkable for his 
generosity and gentleness, were to be their gover- 
nors instead of Pausanias, and in the end they pro- 
posed that the change should be made. 

Aristides was careful to ascertain that the idea 
was not a hasty resolution, but well planned and 
considered ; and when he was certain upon this 
point, he did not hesitate to take upon himself the 
position that every one wished him to hold. He 
12 



x 34 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

was made the head of the confederacy, the object of 
which was to protect the Greeks in the islands, and 
on the coasts of the iEgean Sea, and to humble the 
barbarians. His judgment and moderation were 
now particularly valuable ; for when it was neces- 
sary Lo settle how many ships and how much money 
each state was to contribute, he managed to arrange 
the business in such a way as to satisfy all parties ; 
since no one for an instant suspected him of having 
any view to his own advantage, whatever he might 
propose. The total sum to be raised yearly was 
fixed at 115,000 pounds, and the island of Delos 
was chosen as the treasury. 

Complaints of the conduct of Pausanias soon 
reached Sparta, and the ephors immediately sent 
another commander to take his place, and ordered 
him to return home. But it was too late for Sparta 
to regain the place she had lost, as the head of the 
Grecian confederacy. It was given to Athens ; 
and the Spartans, not choosing to be second, with- 
drew their forces from the allies. Pausanias, on 
his return to Sparta, was obliged to undergo a very 
strict examination ; but, though many charges were 
brought against him, none could exactly be proved. 
Still, lie found himself in a very uncomfortable posi- 
tion. He was looked upon with suspicion, and was 
no longer a person of any consequence. This made 
him so restless and wretched, that he left Sparta 
without asking the consent of the ephors, as he 
ought to have done according to the laws ; and went 
again to Byzantium, where he renewed his treason- 
able plans with the Persians. Again, however, the 
Spai tans heard what he was doing ; and the}' sent 
for him a second time. Pausanias did not venture 
to disobey, because he was not quite sure of having 
help from the Persians if he did so. He therefore 
went back to Sparta, and was directly thrown into 



HISTORY OP GREECE. 135 

prison : probably as a punishment for having gone 
abroad without leave. He was soon, however, set 
free, as there was still not sufficient evidence of his 
being a traitor to his country to allow of his being 
publicly accused. He might have remained at 
peace, if he had not been foolish and wicked enough 
te try to excite an insurrection amongst the Helots ; 
whilst he still kept up a correspondence with Per- 
sia. His plots were betrayed to the ephors, pro- 
bably by some of the Helots themselves, who knew 
that they could not succeed, and must bring all 
concerned in them to ruin. But the ephors took 
no notice, until a circumstance occurred which gav& 
them the means of obtaining the fullest evidence 
upon the subject. 

As is usually the case, Pausanias had been led 
on from one crime to another, till he did not know 
where to stop. Knowing himself to be a traitor to 
his country, he was so afraid of being found out, 
that he had recourse to the most cruel means in 
order to conceal his guilt. Whenever he sent a letter 
to the Persian governor who managed all the secret 
business with him, he used the precaution of desir- 
ing that the bearer of his letter should be put to 
death. One of the messengers, having observed 
that those who had been sent from Pausanias before 
never returned, suspected that some order of this 
kind was given, and therefore opened the letter 
which was entrusted to his charge. His anger was 
roused to the utmost, when he found that his sus- 
picions were true. Pausanias, who professed him- 
self to be his friend, had in this letter given direc- 
tions that he should be killed as soon as he had 
executed the commission he was charged with. 
The Spartan messenger lost no time in revealing 
all the secrets of Pausanias to the ephors ; and, 
together, they formed a plan by which the ephors 



136 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

would have the opportunity of learning the guilt 
of Pausanias from his own mouth. 

The Spartan messenger set out for the temple 
of Poseidon, on the borders of Laconia, which being 
a sacred place would, he knew, protect him from any 
danger. Here he waited for Pausanias. who, he 
was sure, would seek him, and enquire why he had 
neglected to execute his commands. Some of the 
ephors went to the same place, and hid themselves 
where they could hear all that passed. Pausanias 
came, and the messenger began to reproach him 
with the treachery which he had discovered ; and 
instead of denying the truth of the complaint, Pau- 
sanias acknowledged it all, and only tried to pacify 
the Spartan by assuring him that if he would still 
carry his letters he should run no risk of losiDg his 
life. This, of course, was quite sufficient evidence 
for the ephors ; and as soon as they went back to 
Sparta they took measures for arresting Pausanias. 

As he was walking along one of the streets of 
the city, the ephors went to him in a body, intend- 
ing to take him ; but one of them, who had a friendly 
feeling for him, gave him a sign to escape, and he 
fled for safety to a building which stood on some 
ground belonging to the temple of Athene. This 
place being considered sacred, no one dared to drag- 
him from it ; but, in order to prevent his escape, 
the ephors placed guards around the building, un- 
roofed it, and blocked up the entrance. His aged 
mother is said to have been among the first to lay a 
Btone at the doorway, for the purpose of immuring 
him. A lingering death was all thafc Pausanias had 
now to expect. The ephors waited till he was on 
the point of expiring, and when he was too weak to 
make any resistance — which would have profaned 
the sacredness of the place — they caused him to be 
taken out of the consecrated ground, to save it from 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 137 

the pollution of his death. The unhappy F ausanias 
breathed his last as soon as he had crossed the 
bounds of the temple. 

It was a sad end to his ambition ; and as time 
went on, people began to forget his treachery, and 
to remember the services which he had first ren- 
dered to his country. The Delphic oracle declared 
that the temple of Athene had been profaned, and 
ordered two persons to be given up to the goddess, 
in the room of him who had sought refuge in her 
temple and had not found it. The Spartans, there- 
fore, caused two brazen statues of Pausanias to be 
made for the sanctuary of Athene ; but this was not 
considered, by many persons, to be acting up to the 
commands of the oracle, and their enemies still re- 
proached them that their land was not freed from 
the guilt of sacrilege. 

Pausanias was, certainly, a great general ; but a 
much more distinguished person than he suffered 
for his faults. Some letters which the ephors dis- 
covered when searching out the plot, gave them 
reason to believe that Themistocles was acquainted 
with the plans of Pausanias, and was inclined to 
assist in them. They sent to Athens to accuse him, 
, and to insist that he, as well as Pausanias, should 
be punished with death. Themistocles was then 
living at Argos, in exile ; for, notwithstanding his 
past services, he had excited the ill-will of his fel- 
low citizens by his pride and covetousness ; and, like 
Aristides, he had been condemned to exile for a 
time, by the sentence of ostracism. 

Proud, no doubt, Themistocles was. It is said 
that he took pleasure in reminding the Athenians 
of their vast obligations to him — asking them, on 
one occasion, where they would have been without 
him ; and on another, comparing himself to a spread- 
ing tree, under which they had taken shelter in the 



138 HISTORY OP GREECE. 






storm of the Persian invasion — and it is certain 
also ; that lie did not scruple to enrich himself by 
every possible means, and contrived to become very 
wealthy when he had the care of the public money; 
yet, with all these great faults, there seems no rea- 
son to believe that he ever was so rash or so w-icked 
as to join in the plans of Pausanias. It appears 
that Pausanias told him of them, but this was all. 
Themistocles must . have considered them the 
schemes of a madman ; and he might not think it 
necessary or right to betray them. The mere fact, 
however, of his being acquainted with them, was a 
sufficient reason for many persons to deem him 
guilty. He was not a favourite with the people as 
he had once been ; and as, before, they had forgotten 
all his services and exiled him, so now they were 
willing to have him put to death ifpon an unproved 
accusation. 

Themistocles knew how greatly the general feel- 
ing was against him, and as he did not choose to 
trust himself to be tried at Athens, he fled from 
Argos, where he was living, and took shelter at Cor- 
cyra. From thence he crossed over to Epirus. 

The Molossians, the most powerful people of 
Epirus, were then ruled by a king named Admetus, 
who was said to be descended from the Greeks, and 
who was certainly more civilised than his barbarian 
subjects. Themistocles had once opposed Admetus 
in a favour which he asked of the Athenians, and 
he had no reason, now, to expect kindness from him. 
But he was in great danger, and had no time for 
consideration ; and as he intended to pass over into 
Asia, and his way led through the dominions of the 
Molossian king, it seemed best to trust to his gene- 
rosity. 

When Themistocles arrived at the palace of 
Admetus, the king was absent ; and he therefore 






HISTOR,Y OF GREECE. 139 

made himself known to the queen, and implored her 
compassion. The wife of Admetus had no revenge- 
ful feelings against her husband's enemy, now that 
he was in distress. Instead of bidding him find a 
refuge elsewhere, she gave him her infant child, and 
told him to seat himself by the hearth, holding the 
child in his arms, till the king should arrive. This 
was the most solemn modeof supplication among 
the Molossians, and it touched the heart of Adrne- 
his, When he returned home, and saw his once 
powerful enemy so humbled, he forgot every cause 
of anger, received him as his guest, and though the 
Athenians and Lacedaemonians sent to demand him, 
refused to give him up. 

It was not safe, however, for Themistocles to 
remain in Epirus ; for Admetus was not sufficiently 
powerful to guard him, and he determined, as soon 
as possible, to go to Asia, and place himself under 
the protection of Xerxes. Admetus gave him every 
assistance for his journey, and after many risks 
Themistocles arrived safely at Ephesus, where his 
family met him, and where he also received some 
of his property which his friends had been able to 
secure for him. 

A few months after Themistocles reached Asia, 
Xerxes was murdered, and his son Artaxerxes suc- 
ceeded him. Themistocles having a powerful friend 
to protect him, ventured to proceed to the court of 
the young prince. But before presenting himself in 
person, he wrote a letter to Artaxerxes, owning that 
he had done injury to Persia in the defence of his 
country, but adding, as a fact in his favour, that it 
was he who had given Xerxes warning of the inten- 
tion of the Greeks to cut away the bridge of boats 
across the Hellespont ; and who, indeed, had pre- 
vented them from attempting it. His present mis- 
fortunes, he said, were owing to his zeal for the king 



140 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

of Persia's interests ; and he assured Artaxerxea 
that he was willing to show his attachment yet 
more, if he might only be allowed a year to enable 
him to learn the Persian language, and so to dis- 
cover his plans to the king himself. 

Artaxerxes granted his request without hesita- 
tion ; and Themistocles immediately began to study 
the language and manners of the country ; and be- 
came so great a favourite with the king, that the 
courtiers all envied him. After a while, he was 
sent to live near the sea-coast, and a pension was 
given him for his support ; not in money, however, 
as would be the case with us, but according to the 
Eastern custom. Three large cities were obliged 
to provide for his maintenance. Magnesia, in the 
south-west of Lydia, provided him and his family 
with wine ; and Myus, in Caria, with meat and 
other provisions. It was at Magnesia that he lived, 
almost like a prince, with every kind of splendour 
and luxury ; and it was there he died, — some sup- 
pose from poison, which he took himself, others 
from vexation. But almost all agree that his death 
was hastened by the knowledge that he had made 
promises to the king of Persia which he was quite 
unable to perform. His feelings seem to the last 
to have clung to his country, for he desired that his 
bones might be privately conveyed to Attica ; and 
a tomb within the port of Pirasus is said to have 
contained them : though a splendid monument was 
* raised to him in Magnesia. 

There is a pleasure in turning from the fate of 
the selfish and ambitious Themistocles, — living in 
luxury, but dying wretchedly in a foreign land, 
under the protection of his country's enemy, — to 
that of Aristides the Just, who died the year after 
Themistocles was banished. There are very few 
amongst the distinguished men of those ancient 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 141 

days, whom we can think of with so much plea- 
sure. 

The chief work of Aristides was that of uniting 
the Greeks together for their common defence ; but 
he is also said to have introduced great changes in 
the government of Athens, by which all persons in 
the state, however low their birth might be, were 
allowed to hold the highest offices, if they were 
fitted for them. Aristides was universally respected 
during his lifetime, and was more honoured by his ' 
poverty when he died, than he could have been by 
wealth. The great offices which he had held had 
been no source of riches to him, for he spent every- 
thing for others, and laid by nothing for himself; 
and though, as has already been said, he left behind 
him scarcely sufficient to pay the expenses of his 
funeral ; yet his monument was built at the public 
charge, his children were provided for by the pub- 
lic money, and his name has been handed down 
through hundreds of years, as an honour to his 
country, and an example to mankind. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

CIMON BANISHED FROM ATHENS. 
b. c. 461. 

Cimon, the son of Militiades, is the next person 
whom we hear of as greatly distinguishing himself 
in the events connected with the history of Greece. 
As a boy Cimon did not appear very clever ; and, 
indeed, we are told that he was not even as accom- 
plished as the Athenian gentlemen usually were. 
But he quite made up for any deficiencies when he 
grew up to be a man, though he had not the gift of 



142 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

eloquence, and therefore could not gain favour with 
the people by fair words, as some of his rivals did. 

When his father Miltiades died, Cimon was left 
with a very small fortune, and had great difficulty 
in paying the sum of money which, it may be re- 
membered, was required of Miltiades for an offence 
against the state. The money was paid at last, 
by the help of a rich Athenian who agreed to dis- 
charge the penalty, if Cimon's sister, a very beau- 
tiful, but a very wicked woman, would consent to 
be his wife. 

The first time that Cimon attracted particular 
notice, was on the occasion of the Athenians leaving 
their city on the approach of Xerxes, when he was 
the foremost to hang up a bridle in the Acropolis, 
as a sign that from thenceforth, they must not hope 
to find safety by land. He also fought bravely at 
Salamis ; and Aristides, perceiving that he was a 
person of talent and honour, agreed that he 
should be joined with himself afterwards in the 
command of the Athenian fleet. So Cimon ad- 
vanced more and more in the public favour, and 
when the power of Themistocles was declining, 
persons looked to him as the leader who was most 
likely to advance the glory of the state. He kept 
up this general good opinion by a series of success- 
ful enterprises against the Persians in Asia Minor ; 
and also by subduing a race of pirates which inhabited 
the isle of Scyros. Besides which, he contrived 
to gain great power for his native city, by obliging 
several small states and islands which did not 
choose that Athens should be the head of the Greek 
confederacy, and be considered superior to them, to 
submit as if they were subjects. The assistance 
which these little states had formerly given by 
sending ships and men to aid Athens in her wars, 
was now exchanged for a fixed sum of money ; and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 143 

by this means the small states became unwarlike. 
and so were not able to resist the increasing power 
of Athens, whilst the money was of the greatest use 
in enabling the Athenians to fit out their vessels, 
and keep up their navy, upon which they so much 
depended. 

All this was going on whilst Pausanias was car- 
rying on his schemes at Sparta, and Themistocles 
was living in exile at Argos ; and about the time 
that Themistocles was obliged to flee for his life, 
Cimon sailed over to the coast of Asia, and gained 
so great a victory over the Persian fleet, which was 
stationed at the mouth of the Eurymedon, a small 
river of Pamphylia, in Asia Minor, that it may be 
considered as the complete termination of the war 
between Persia and Greece. Soon after, Xerxes 
died ; and then, there was such confusion at the 
court. of Persia, that the Greeks were left to them- 
selves. But whilst Cimon was thus gaining such 
renown abroad, he had a rival at home, who was 
trying to supplant him in the favour of the people ; 
and whose notions of government were so entirely 
different from his, that it was clear the time must 
come sooner or later, when serious disputes would 
arise betweenH:hem. 

This rival was Pericles, the son of the same 
person who had brought forward the accusation 
which caused the ruin of Miltiades. The enmity 
seems thus almost to have descended from father to 
son on both sides. 

Pericles was a man of high birth, for he was one 
of the Alcmaeonids. From his early youth he had 
been admitted into the best society, and had entered 
with the greatest delight into all kinds of deep 
studies and researches. Unlike Cimon, he was ex- 
tremely eloquent ; and thus, whilst Cimon sought 
for honour in his wars abroad, Pericles gained the 



144 \ HISTORY OF GREECE. 

favour of the people at home by his splendid speech, 
and his care for their general interests. 

His appearance, too, was very much in his fa- 
vour. He was an extremely majestic, graceful per- 
son ; though some of the comic writers of the day 
used to laugh at him for the extraordinary length 
of his head. The old men of Athens declared he 
was very like Pisistratus, and had just the same 
sweet voice and quick manner of speaking. 

Cimon belonged to what may be called the aris- 
tocratic party, or the party of the nobles ; and Pe- 
ricles to the democratic, or the party of the people. 
Cimon thought it best that the state should be ruled 
by a few persons of rank and wealth ; Pericles was 
willing that every one who had sufficient talent 
should have a share in the government. This, we 
may recollect, was the idea that Aristides seems to 
have had, when he proposed that persons of the 
lowest rank might be made archons, if they were 
fit for the office. With regard to foreign affairs 
also, Cimon and Pericles had different opinions. 
It was the wish of Cimon and his friends, to keep 
all the states of Greece about equal in power and 
importance ; and, for this reason, they carried on 
the war with Persia vigorously ; thinking, that 
whilst the Greeks had a foreign enemy to fight 
against, they would not have time to quarrel 
amongst themselves as to which should be the 
greatest. Pericles, on the contrary, had a great 
desire to make Athens the head of Greece, and did 
everything he possibly could to render her more 
powerful than the other states. 

The difference in these two men was to be seen 
in everything they did. Cimon, though a poor man 
originally, had become rich by the spoils taken from 
the Persians, and also by having recovered some of 
the property which his father had lost in the Cher- 



HISTORY OF GREECE, 145 

sonesus. Being naturally very liberal, he made a 
generous use of his wealth, for he assisted in build- 
ing walls around the citadel, and from the town to 
the harbours of Phalerum and Piraeus. The latter 
were called the Long Walls. They were quite the 
pride of the Athenians, from their strength and 
usefulness. Cimon also planted trees in the city ; 
and, by the means of water-works, changed a bar- 
ren waste, about two miles to the north of Athens, 
into a beautiful grove. This grove was called the 
Academy ; and there the philosophers and grave 
persons of the state used to walk up and down, and 
meditate, and the young ones to amuse themselves 
with games and exercises. 

But, besides these expenses for the public good, 
Cimon indulged in others, which were not by any 
means so useful. Though his principles led him to 
side with the party of the nobles, yet, in order to 
gain favour with the common people, he threw down 
the fences round his fields and orchards, and allowed 
all who chose to go in and eat as much as they 
pleased ; and he also feasted the people continually. 
When he went into the streets, he was generally 
attended by a number of well-dressed persons, who, 
if they met an elderly citizen, scantily clothed, would 
insist upon taking off their own warm garments, and 
exchanging them for the threadbare mantle of the 
poor man. Others of his followers were ordered 
silently and respectfully to offer money to any poor 
citizen of good character, whom they might see in 
the market-place. If all this had been done from 
really kind motives, there would have been great 
cause to admire the goodness of Cimon's disposi- 
tion ; but, although he was undoubtedly a generous 
and amiable person, it seems too probable that his 
intention in these extraordinary attentions to the 

13 



146 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

poor, was only to gain their favour for himself and 
his friends. 

Pericles, it appears, had suspicions of this kind; 
for all his endeavours, when he had power in the 
state, were used to undo the effects of Cimon's pro- 
fuse extravagance to the lower orders. He, also, 
was thoughtful about the poor ; but, instead of 
making them dependent upon himself, he tried to 
introduce laws by which they might be provided 
for at the public expense. 

His own fortune was not as large as Cimon's, 
and he was very economical and careful ; knowing 
that extravagance constantly leads people to dis- 
honesty. His habits of life were retired. He de- 
clined all entertainments, and was only once known 
to break through his rule, — in order to honour the 
wedding of a relation. His friends were very se- 
lect, and his time was entirely given up to public 
business. Indeed, he never was to be seen out of 
doors, but on the way from his own house to the 
place of council. He was particularly attentive to 
prepare his speech beforehand, when he knew that 
he should be called upon to make one : and he used 
to say himself, that he never began one without 
praying that no inappropriate word might drop 
from his lips. This quietness and dignity of char- 
acter and manners gave great effect to all he said ; 
and as he did not think it desirable to show him- 
self very often to the people, his appearance, when 
he did come forward on any occasion, was thought 
a great deal of. He never allowed himself to be 
ruffled by anything which was said, and never for- 
got to be courteous to all persons. There is a story 
told of him, that one day as he was transacting 
business in public, a man began to abuse him, and, 
after railing at him a long time, followed him home 
in the dusk, still using the same rude language. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 147 

Pericles did not stop him till he reached his own 
door, and then, without making any complaint, 
calmly ordered one of his servants to take a light 
and conduct the man home. 

It seems strange that so grave and dignified a 
person should have exerted himself to diminish the 
power of the ancient judges of Athens ; yet this was 
really the case, and one of the greatest changes 
which Pericles tried to bring about was with regard 
to the power of the court of Areopagus. His ob- 
ject in this must have been, according to his prin- 
ciples, to give greater authority to the people in 
general than to the few who were Areopagites. The 
measures which he proposed, in order to diminish 
the authority of this court, were just about to be 
discussed, when, a few years after the last defeat 
of the Persians by Cimon, an embassy was sent 
from Sparta to request the assistance of the Athe- 
nians, in a war which they were carrying on against 
the Helots and Messenians. These people had 
long before been conquered by the Spartans, but 
had now seized the opportunity of a tremendous 
earthquake, which destroyed the whole city of 
Sparta, with the exception of five houses, to rise in 
rebellion, and fortify themselves in the ancient 
stronghold of Ithome. 

Cimon was at this time in Athens, and had 
only just escaped a great danger. After the battle 
of Eurymedon, he carried on a war with the people 
of the island of Thasos, who had taken possession 
of some gold mines in Thrace, which the Athenians 
said belonged to them ; and then he received in- 
structions to make an expedition against some 
tribes on the borders of Macedonia, who had 
done great injury to the Athenian colonists settled 
in their neighbourhood. These instructions, how- 
ever, Cimon did not obey ; and when he came back 



148 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

to Athens, a public accusation was brought against 
him, and some people said he had been bribed by 
the Macedonians. Pericles was appointed to be 
one of the public accusers ; but, before the day of 
trial, Cimon's beautiful sister came to his house, 
and begged so earnestly that he would not do an 
injury to her brother, that Pericles was induced to 
consent. Instead of making an oration against 
Cinion, he merely said the few words which were 
required, for form's sake, and Cimon was pronounced 
" Not guilty." But the accusation was a very seri- 
ous one, and might have cost him his life. 

On the occasion of the embassy from Sparta, 
the two parties of Cimon and Pericles took opposite 
sides. Cimon was a great admirer of the Spartan 
laws, and liked the character of the people, and had 
named one of his own sons, Lacedsemonius, as a 
proof of this partiality. When it was now pro- 
posed that the Spartans should not be assisted, be- 
cause it was not wise to raise up a fallen enemy, 
Cimon's reply was, " Let us not permit Greece to 
be lamed, nor Athens to lose her yoke-fellow." 

His counsel was followed, and he was sent with 
a large force to assist the Spartans at the siege of 
Ithome. The Spartans had hoped that the Athe- 
nians, who were particularly skilful in sieges, would 
very soon take the place ; but a long time passed, 
and Ithome was still unconquered. They then be- 
gan to suspect that the Athenians were not really 
trying to help them, and dismissed their troops 
without giving any sufficient reason for such con- 
duct. The Athenians were extremely angry, and 
determined at once to break off all friendship with 
the Spartans, and to enter into an alliance with the 
state of Argos, which, from the earliest times, had 
been at constant variance with Sparta ; so much so, 
indeed, that the jealousy between the two states 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 149 

was the cause of the Argives refusing to assist in 
the defence of Greece during the Persian war. 

The party of Pericles were very pleased at this 
turn of affairs. They were able, now, to find fault 
with Cimon for having insisted upon the expedition 
against Ithome ; and, as he and his friends seemed 
to he quite out of favour, it appeared a good oppor- 
tunity to carry on the scheme for diminishing the 
power of the court of Areopagus, which Cimon up- 
held. It is not known what were the exact changes 
that Pericles and his friends wished to make in 
this court. Some persons say that they desired to 
prevent trials for murder being brought before it ; 
and others, that they disliked the power which its 
members had of making decrees about the educa- 
tion and conduct of the citizens ; but, however this 
might be, it is certain that Cimon opposed their 
Wishes, and was supported in his own views by 
iEschylus, a great poet, and one of the most cele- 
brated persons of either ancient or modern times. 
iEschylus was a warrior, as well as an author. He 
had fought nobly, both at Marathon and Salamis ; 
but he is most distinguished for his tragedies, 
which not only contain most beautiful poetry, but 
are also full of the noblest sentiments that it seems 
possible for a heathen to have had. The tragedies 
of iEschylus were particularly interesting to the 
Greeks, because they were generally composed from 
subjects connected with their religion or their his- 
tory. After the battle of Salamis, he wrote one 
upon the flight of Xerxes; and now, when it was pro- 
posed to alter the court of Areopagus, he broughi 
forward another called " The Eumenides," or " The 
Furies," in which he declared that Athene and the 
Furies were the peculiar guardians of the court of 
Areopagus, and that it would be profane to make 
alterations in it. 



150 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

But, although the tragedy of " The Eumenides " 
is one of the finest that was ever written, it did not 
answer the purpose for which it was composed. 
Pericles and his friends gained their point, and a 
law was passed which took away a great deal of the 
power of the Areopagus, and, almost directly after- 
wards, Cimon was exiled by the sentence of ostra- 
cism. This was done, probably, not so much be- 
cause the people were angry with them, but because 
the most sober judging persons in the city thought 
that if he was absent for some time, there would be 
less likelihood of disturbances, and complaints of 
the changes which had been made. 

Cimon remained between five and six years in 
exile. During this time the Athenians were carry- 
ing on wars both at home and abroad ; but they 
were not so successful as they had been when he 
was their commander. After their quarrel with the 
Spartans, for sending back their troops from Ithome, 
it naturally happened that any small state which 
also took offence at Sparta looked to Athens for 
assistance ; and in this way the Athenians were 
mixed up with endless disputes. 

The people of Megara, being at enmity with the 
Corinthians, and thinking that the Spartans, who 
professed to be their friends, did not help them as 
they ought, sought to ally themselves to the Athe- 
nians instead ; and Athens was then obliged to be 
at war with Corinth. About the same time she 
was called upon to assist an African prince, subject 
to the king of Persia, who had excited an insurrec- 
tion amongst his people in order to throw off the 
Persian yoke. It was quite natural for the Athe- 
nians to oppose the Persians, wherever they might 
be ; and their fleet, which was then lying off Cy- 
prus, was immediately sent to Africa. 

It is wonderful that so small a state should 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 151 

have been able to carry on several wars at the same 
time ; and the Athenians themselves seem to have 
been aware that their power was very surprising ; 
for there is an inscription still preserved in the 
Louvre, at Paris, which records that in the same 
year, b. c. 457, their slain fell in Cyprus, in Egypt, 
in Phoenicia, at Halise, in iEgina, and in Megara. 
Those who fell at Halise, iEgina, and Megara, were 
engaged in the Corinthian war ; and those in Cy- 
prus, Egypt, and Phoenicia, in the African war. 
Halise was a town in Argolis. 

The enmity of Sparta and Athens led at last to 
the defeat of the Athenians, in a battle in which 
Pericles himself was engaged. The Phocians had 
invaded Doris, which was the parent state of Sparta 3 
— for Peloponnesus, we may remember, was chiefly 
peopled by Dorian tribes. The Spartans went to 
the aid of the Dorians, and compelled the Phocians 
to give up the towns they had taken. As they 
were returning home, the Athenians stopped them, 
and a battle took place at Tanagra, in Boeotia, on 
the borders of" Attica. Cimon, who was living in 
the neighbourhood, came to the Athenian camp, 
and requested leave to join in the battle : but the 
Athenian generals refused, and Cimon was obliged 
to retire, leaving his armour with his friends, and 
exhorting them to refute by their deeds the accusa- 
tion which had sometimes been brought against 
them, of preferring Sparta to their own country. 
The armour was placed in the ranks, and Cimon's 
friends fought round it desperately, till they fell, 
each one at his own post. Pericles also distin- 
guished himself by extraordinary bravery ; but, in 
spite of all these efforts, the battle was lost, owing 
to the treachery of some Thessalians, who professed 
themselves the allies of Athens, but went over to 
the Spartans after the battle had begun. 



152 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

War continued in this way for about two years 
longer, and then Cimon was recalled from exile. 
Pericles himself proposed his return, and the Athe- 
nians were very willing to consent. Their troops 
which had been sent to Egypt, met, about this time, 
with a great defeat, and they had also been unsuc- 
cessful on several occasions at home. It was not 
difficult for Cimon's friends to contrast these mis- 
fortunes with the great victories which Cimon had 
so often gained over the Persians ; and to convince 
the people that it would be wise to recall him, and 
to make peace with Sparta. Pericles was probably 
anxious that he should be at Athens again, in or- 
der to restrain the bad conduct of his own party, 
who began to be so turbulent that it was difficult 
to keep them in order. Cimon, therefore, was re- 
stored, and his return was followed by a peace 
of several years between the two great Grecian 
states. 

Cimon's rest at Athens did not continue long. 
His last expedition, like that which had first ren- 
dered him famous, was directed against the power 
of Persia. He took the command of a fleet which 
was sent to Egypt to assist in the war that was 
still going on there, and in that undertaking met 
with his death. 

He died of an illness caused, it has been some- 
times said by a wound which he received whilst be* 
sieging a town in Cyprus. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 153 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE BUILDING OF THE PARTHENON, THE PROPYL.EA 
ETC. 

b. c. 438. 

The truce which had been concluded with Sparta, 
soon after Cimon's return from exile, continued 
for a few years after his death ; and then, after a 
slight renewal of the old quarrel, it was proposed 
to be settled for thirty years more. The terms 
agreed upon, when the arrangement was made, were 
not very much to the advantage of the Athenians ; 
but it was extremely desirable for them to have a 
time of rest ; and peace made them in reality much 
more prosperous than even their successful wars. 

Though the Athenians professed the utmost 
love of freedom themselves, yet they took care that 
the small states which were in alliance with them 
should have very little of it. Cimon had done a great 
deal towards making these states subjects instead 
of allies, by causing them to pay a tribute, and 
rendering them un warlike ; but when Cimon was 
dead, and Pericles had no one to oppose his wishes, 
he carried out these beginnings a great deal further ; 
and the small states were kept under such subjec- 
tion, that they were not even allowed to settle their 
law cases for themselves, but were obliged to go to 
Athens, to have them decided, unless they were of 
a very trifling nature. 

This hard usage was very nearly the cause of 
the breaking up of the thirty years' truce — for 
some of the inhabitants of the Island of Samos 
tried on one occasion to throw off the Athenian yoke, 
and the question was publicly discussed amongst 
the other Grecian states whether they might not 
assist them. It was, however, determined in the 



154 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

end, that the Samians were to he considered as 
rebels, and they were left to the vengeance of 
Athens. Pericles undertook the command of the 
fleet which was sent out against them, and subdued 
them, though not without difficulty. 

Both sides behaved disgracefully to the prisoners 
who were taken. The Athenians branded theirs 
with the figure of a peculiar kind of Samian mer- 
chant ship ; and the Samians marked theirs with 
the figure of an owl, the favourite bird of Athene, 
the goddess of Athens. Pericles was received with 
great honour by his fellow citizens when he returned 
home ; and the women showered upon him chaplets 
and wreaths as he was pronouncing the funeral 
speech over the dead who had fallen ; but Cimon's 
beautiful sister refused to join in the public ap- 
plause, for she remembered her brother's victories 
over the Persians, and thought it nobler to triumph 
over the barbarians than to conquer a Grecian city. 

Besides thus keeping the allies in subjection, the 
power of Athens was now much increased by the 
colonies which Pericles caused to be pi an ted in several 
of the neighbouring countries. The colonists were 
still considered Athenian citizens, so that they 
took the greatest interest in the parent state, and 
did all they could to make it prosperous. 

And with all this care for the public honour, 
and the government of the country, Pericles gave a 
great deal of his time and attention to the improve- 
ment of the city, and the encouragement of learning 
and the arts. The temples which had been de- 
stroyed by the Persians, were now rebuilt in the most 
splendid manner. The summit of the Acropolis 
was covered with sacred buildings, statues, and 
monuments ; and the Parthenon, a temple of Athene, 
was built with such exquisite taste, that even its 
ruins cause delight and admiration to all who see 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 155 

them. It was of marble, and supported by rows of 
magnificent columns, and the ornaments of leaves 
and flowers were painted in the most brilliant 
colours. This was also the case with the sculptures 
on the top, which must have looked like splendid 
pictures set in marble frames. Within was the 
colossal statue of the goddess, composed of ivory 
and gold, and the work of Phidias, the most celebra- 
ted sculptor of antiquity. The entrance to the 
Acropolis was through a building called the Propy- 
lsea, which was also supported by columns, and richly 
painted. There was a portico to the Propyhea, wide 
enough to admit of a road running through it. On 
the occasion of the great festivals, long processions 
used to go under this portico, and through a corridor 
or passage leading from it, with columns on each side, 
till they came in front of five great bronze doors, 
which, being thrown open, discovered all the beau- 
tiful buildings, the statues, and columns, and bril- 
liant colours of the interior of the Acropolis. The 
Parthenon was the largest and finest temple of 
Athene within the Acropolis ; but there was another 
more venerated, because it contained a statue of 
Athene, made of olive wood, which the Greeks be- 
lieved to have originally fallen from heaven. The 
throne of Xerxes and the sword of Mardonius were 
placed in this latter temple, which is sometimes 
called the Erectheum, — from Erectheus, one of the 
earliest Athenian kings, whose tomb was within it, 

There was a porch to the Erectheum, which, in- 
stead of being supported by pillars, was upheld by 
the figures of six women, dressed according to the 
fashion of the virgins, who took part in one of the 
great processions which have before been mentioned. 
These figures were called Caryatides. One of them 

* The Erectheum existed in very early days, but was re- 
built about the time of Pericles. 



# 



156 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

was brought to England some years ago. and the 
modern Athenians being dreadfully grieved at the 
loss, declared, — and many of them believe at this 
day ? — that the other &Ye figures moaned and la- 
mented with tears and sobbings all night long for 
the departure of their sister, and were only com- 
forted when the sun rose in the morning, and dried 
the tears upon their stony faces.* 

There is a large church in London, St. Pancras', 
part of which is supported by figures, resembling 
the Caryatides. The architect seems to hare for- 
gotten how very unfitting such heathen images must 
always be for a Christian church. 

The most interesting part of ancient Athens now 
remaining is the Acropolis, full as it is of the re- 
mains of the great works, ordered by Pericles and 
executed by Phidias ; and we might well wonder 
how persons of so much taste, and such wisdom as 
regarded the things of this world, could have been 
so senseless and superstitious in their religion, if we 
did not see daily, ourselves, that even in Christian 
countries, the cleverest men are often the most ig- 
norant and careless as regards the knowledge of 
heaven. 

The erection of so many beautiful buildings em- 
ployed a great number of persons, and thus became 
of general use ; and the Athenians were extremely 
proud of them, and never grudged the money that 
was spent upon them. On one occasion the ques- 
tion was discussed, publicly, whether marble or ivory 
should be employed for the statue of Athene, which 
was to be placed in the Parthenon. Phidias recom- 
mended marble, because it was the cheaper mate- 
rial; but when the assembly heard this, they imme- 
diately decided that it should be ivory. Athens 

* See " Picturesque Sketches in Greece arid Turkey," by 
Aubrey De Vere. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 157 

seems also to have made a sudden advance in learn- 
ing and poetry, about this time, as well as in works 
of art. Before, she could boast of no poets or art- 
ists at all equal to those of some of the other states; 
but now. besides Phidias, the sculptor, and iEschylus, 
there were several other Athenians whose names 
and writings have come down to the present day. 
Sophocles is one of them. He was younger than 
.ZEschylus, but became his rival as a poet and a 
writer of tragedies ; and on the first occasion when 
there was a trial of their talents in the public the- 
atre, he was considered to surpass him. This was 
a great vexation to iEschylus, who was so annoyed 
that he left Greece, and went to Sicily. Sophocles 
was afterwards honoured in a way which seems 
strange to us. He was made a general, and accom- 
panied Pericles in the expedition before mentioned 
against the island of Samos. In the end, however, 
Sophocles had to bear the same disappointment as 
.ZEschylus, for before his death a new poet had 
sprung up, Euripides, whom the Athenians preferred 
to himself. 

iEschylus is said to have written seventy trage- 
dies, but only seven have been preserved. They 
are all of a solemn character, and relating chiefly to 
the gods. The tragedies of Sophocles and Euri- 
pides are of a lighter kind, and more concern the 
actions of human beings. 

The labours of Pericles for what he considered 
the public benefit, though they were very great, did 
not prevent him from gaining ill-will. He had pro- 
vided work for those who were in want of it, caused 
the building of splendid temples, encouraged paint- 
ing and sculpture, and afforded to the poor the 
means of frequenting public amusements, of which 
the Athenians were extremely fond ; and yet there 
were persons to find fault with him and be jealous 
U 



.158 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

of him. They could not, indeed, discover much to 
say against his public government, but they tried to 
raise a suspicion against him. by bringing accusa- 
tions against his friend, Phidias the sculptor. They 
declared that Phidias had taken possession, for 
himself, of some of the gold which had been given 
for the statue of Athene in the Parthenon. If this 
charge had been proved, every one would have sup- 
posed it probable that Pericles, whc knew all which 
Phidias did in his public works, had some share in 
the fraud. The accusation, however, was shown to 
be entirely false, and the enemies of Pericles then 
made another attempt against his friend, by assert- 
ing that Phidias, in painting the shield of Athene, 
had introduced amongst the figures his own portrait 
and that of Pericles. This was considered a pro- 
fane act ; and though the charge was not properly 
proved, Phidias was thrown into prison and died 
there. 

After the success of this attempt, the persons 
who so hated Pericles were induced to try a new 
charge, which they knew would be more distressing 
to him than any other. There was a foreign lady 
living in Athens, extremely clever and fascinating, 
to whom Pericles was exceedingly attached. This 
lady, whose name was Aspasia, was accustomed to 
receive at her house a number of the most learned 
and clever men of the age, with whom she discussed 
very deep and difficult subjects ; and the meetings 
were attended also by many of the Athenian ladies. 
Aspasia was a foreigner, and therefore did not care 
about the manners of the Athenians : but as it was 
not usually the custom for ladies to attend meetings 
of this kind, many persons thought it very wrong in 
them to go ; and by degrees it was reported that 
the subjects which were talked of were irreligious 
and wrong. At last a public accusation was brought 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 159 

against Aspasia, for encouraging such bad practices. 
and at the same time Pericles was called upon to 
account for the money which he had spent on the 
public works, as it was said that he had taken some 
for his own use. 

This was the most trying situation in which Pe- 
ricles had ever been placed, but he was far more 
distressed for Aspasia than for himself. He plead- 
ed her cause even with tears and entreaties, and in 
the end he was successful. The charge against her 
was dropped, and so also were the accusations 
against himself, and after this time he became more 
powerful than ever, Anaxagoras, a celebrated 
philosopher, and a friend of Pericles and Aspasia, 
was accused with them of teaching wrong doctrines 
about religion, and was severely punished ; but it 
is uncertain whether he was condemned to death, 
and managed to escape from prison ; or whether he 
was only banished. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

m THE BEGINNING OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
b. c. 431. 

The thirty years' truce between Athens and Sparta 
was broken after it had lasted fifteen years. Many 
things happened beforehand which showed that war 
was at hand, in the same way as the constant bicker- 
ings of two persons who dislike each other, give 
reason to believe that they will soon have a decided 
quarrel. There were two events which served espe- 
cially to increase the enmity of the great rival states. 
The first was a dispute between Athens and Co- 
rinth. The Corinthians were engaged in a war 



160 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

with the people of Corcyra, respecting a colony 
from that island, which had been founded on the 
coast of Illyria. Some of these colonists in Illyria 
had, from various causes, separated from Corcjra, 
and put themselves under the protection of Corinth. 
The Corcyraeans would not allow the persons, who 
were in a manner their subjects, to seek protection 
from any but themselves ; and when they found 
that the Corinthians took part with the colonists 
of Illyria, they declared war against Corinth, and 
sent to Athens to beg for her assistance. The 
Athenians would not agree to give the Corcyrseans 
help openly ; but only said that they would make 
an alliance with them, and defend them if their 
territories were attacked. This show of keeping 
aloof did not last very long. Ten vessels were sent 
by the Athenians to Corcyra, with orders not to 
join in any battle unless the territory of Corcyra 
should be attacked ; but in the first sea-fight, the 
Corcyrseans were nearly defeated, and then the Athe- 
nians, whose ships were stationed near, were tempt- 
ed to assist them, and so became openly engaged 
in the war. 

About this same time a war was going on in 
Macedonia, between Perdiccas, the king of that 
country, and Philip his brother. The Athenians 
took the part of Philip, and Perdiccas did all he 
could to gain the support of some of the other Gre- 
cian states, particularly Corinth and Sparta. He 
axso tried to make several towns in Macedonia, 
which were subject to Athens, revolt. We must 
remember that Athens had many subject towns in 
different countries ; and though now, in Europe, 
which is so thickly peopled, and where all the king- 
doms and governments are fixed, we cannot so well 
understand how this should be ; yet, in India, the 
same thing has been done in later days ; and the 



HISTOE-Y OF GREECE. 161 

Portuguese have had towns in one place, and tha 
Dutch in another, whilst the English have been 
masters of the greater part of the country. 

The town of Poti&asa, in the south of Macedo- 
nia, was one of those which Perdiccas tried to make 
revolt. It was originally a colony from Corinth, 
and was still governed by Corinthian magistrates, 
though it had been forced to become tributary to 
Athens. Now that Athens and Corinth were at 
war, and that Perdiccas, king of Macedon, was try- 
ing to gain the support of the Corinthians, the Athe- 
nians did not choose that a town which was tribu- 
tary to them, should have anything to do with their 
enemies. So they ordered the Potidseans to send 
away their Corinthian magistrates, and to pull down 
their fortifications. The order was not complied 
with, for the Potidaeans knew that, if they were 
attacked, not only the Corinthians, but the Spartans 
also, would come to their assistance. They rebel- 
led ; and several other towns near, which were like- 
wise tributary to Athens, were persuaded by Per- 
diccas to do the same. 

The Athenians immediately besieged Potidgea ; 
and, notwithstanding the efforts of the Corinthians, 
and of King Perdiccas, who joined to defend it, 
there seemed every probability that the town would 
be taken. The Corinthians were now extremely 
angry, and anxious above all things to engage the 
Spartans in their quarrel ; and as they knew that 
many of the other states had the same dislike to 
the power of Athens which they had themselves, 
they invited deputies from all quarters to meet at 
Sparta, and make their complaints ; the Spartans 
being very willing to hear them, The question of 
peace or war with Athens was then to be discussed. 

The meeting was accordingly held ; all who had 
wrongs to complain of stated them ; and when every 



162 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

one else had spoken, the Corinthian deputy came 
forward to urge the Spartans to decide against 
Athens, and to join in the war. 

" Sparta," he said, " had trusted too much to the 
good faith of Athens, and suffered her to act tyran- 
nically without interfering. If this went on, the 
ambition and insolence of Athens would know no 
bounds." " You seem," he added, " never to have 
reflected how wide a difference there is between 
you and the people with whom you have to contend. 
They are ever forming new projects ; you are 
content to keep what you have, without aiming at 
more. They are prompt and eager for foreign ex- 
peditions : you are loth to stir from home. What- 
ever they may gain they account little in comparison 
with what remains to be won. They make a pastime 
of business, and prefer laborious occupation to 
indolent repose." And having thus described the 
character of the Athenians, the Corinthian deputy 
ended his speech, by hinting, that if the Spartans 
did not comply with the demand now made, the 
Corinthians would be obliged to seek a new alliance : 
by which was meant an alliance with Argos, a state 
always at enmity with Sparta. 

It happened that there were present in the as- 
sembly, some Athenian envoys who had been sent 
to Sparta on business, not regarding the war. They 
had obtained leave to attend the meeting ; and after 
the speech of the Corinthian deputy, one of them 
addressed the assembly, and in a long harangue 
endeavoured to set forth the moderation of the 
Athenians, and their gentle government, which he 
asserted was much greater than that of Sparta. 
" All that they had done," he said, " was only from 
necessity ; and if the Spartans were determined upon 
war, they would do well to remember, that it waa 



HISTORY OP GREECE. 163 

very uncertain, and that it might be much better to 
settle their differences quietly." 

When the strangers had been heard, they were 
desired to withdraw, and the Spartans were left to 
discuss the question amongst themselves. 

Archidamus, the elder of the two kings, was one 
of those most inclined for peace, or at least for 
delay. " They were not then in a condition," he 
said, " to bear a war. They had no navy. It would 
be better to wait two or three years, and endeavour 
in the mean time to arrange their disputes by ne- 
gotiations. If these failed, they would have time to 
prepare for war by making alliances with other 
nations, who might be able to furnish them with 
the aid they most wanted — money and ships." 

But this advice did not suit the wishes of the 
assembly. The presiding ephor rose up, and spoke 
very differently. " He could not understand," he 
said, " what the long speeches of the Athenians 
meant. They had said much in praise of them- 
selves, but not a word to prove that they had not 
injured Sparta and her allies ; and the better their 
conduct had been in past times, the more they 
deserved to suffer for having acted differently now. 
Other states were strong in ships, and horses, and 
gold ; but Sparta was strong in her allies, and she 
ought not to desert them." 

"Let us not listen," he concluded, "to those who 
recommend deliberation, which becomes persons who 
are about to commit an injury, rather than those 
who have received one ; but vote, as befits the dig- 
nity of Sparta, for war." 

He then put the question to the vote. The 
greater number were for war ; and war was decided 
on ; not however immediately. The Delphic oracle 
was to be consulted, and another general meeting 
of the allies was to be held 3 and preparations were 



164 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

to be made, both at Spaita and in the other Pelo 
ponnesian states, and so a whole year passed away 
before the army was actually ready to invade 
Attica. 

Even then the Spartans were anxious, to find 
some more decided reason for going to war than 
had yet been brought forward ; and envoys were 
sent to Athens to make demands which it Tvas well 
known could not possibly be complied with. The 
charge against the family of the Alcmseonids was 
revived again. The goddess Athene, it was said, 
still demanded vengeance against them, and it was 
necessary they should be banished for the insult 
which had been offered her so many years before, 
when Megacles, the archon, killed the prisoners who 
had placed themselves under the protection of the 
goddess. This demand was made expressly for the 
purpose of obtaining the banishment of Pericles, 
whose mother was an Alcmaeonid. 

The Athenians, however, were able to retort the 
same kind of charge upon the Spartans ; and on 
their side they demanded that amends should be 
made for the murder of Pausanias, who was killed 
whilst taking refuge in a temple of Athene at 
Sparta. 

Both parties, in fact, were trying to bring for- 
ward old complaints, in order to have an excuse for 
war. The Spartans indeed protested that they 
wished for peace, but they insisted so strongly upon 
the Athenians giving up the siege of Potidsea, and 
granting greater freedom to their allies, that it was 
evident they would never be brought to agree : for 
the Athenians, at that time, were full of pride and 
self-confidence, and did not choose to yield in the 
smallest degree ; still less, to confess that they had 
ever been in the wrong. 

Pericles, especially, was urgent for war. When 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 165 

the last assembly was held at Athens for the pur- 
pose of giving a final answer to Sparta, he entreat- 
ed his fellow-citizens not to yield. " Athens," he 
said, "had nothing to fear from Sparta and her 
allies, either by sea or land. Their navy could not 
rival hers ; and though they might invade Attica, 
and even occupy a fortress there, yet the Athenians 
could retaliate by ravaging their coasts. When 
Sparta would make her allies independent, then 
Athens would do the same with hers." " Yet," he 
declared to the Spartan envoys, " Athens was still 
willing to have all differences decided by an impar- 
tial judge, and would not begin the war, but only 
keep herself in readiness to repel an attack." 

With this answer the ambassadors returned to 
Sparta. 

Still there was a pause, and war had not openly 
been declared ; but early in the following spring, b. c. 
431, in the fifteenth year of the thirty years' truce, 
an event took place which increased the anger of 
all parties, and hastened the evil that had so long 
been threatened. 

The city of Platsea was at that time in alliance 
with Athens. The alliance was disliked by a few 
of the inhabitants, and they secretly invited the 
Thebans to come and take possession of the city. 
The Thebans, feeling that a general war was near 
at hand, were very well inclined to strengthen 
themselves, and in the dead of the night a body of 
three hundred men marched to Plataea ; and, the 
gates being left unguarded, were admitted into the 
town by one of their friends. They proceeded to 
the market-place and made a proclamation, inviting 
all persons who were anxious that Plataea should be 
one of the cities in alliance with Thebes, to join 
them The Platseans, at first, believing the The- 
bans to be numerous, entered into a parley with 



166 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

them ; but, when they discovered what a ^mall body 
they really were, they began to think it possible to 
overcome them. 

During the night, they formed their plans, and 
a little before daybreak they fell upon the unfortu- 
nate Thebans, and fought with them in the streets, 
whilst the women and slaves showered stones and 
tiles upon them from the tops of the houses. The 
Thebans fled, but they could not find their way in 
the dark, through a strange town. Some mounted 
the walls, and threw themselves down on the out- 
side ; and a few contrived to reach one of the gates, 
in a lone quarter, and made a woman give them an 
axe to beat the gate to pieces, and so escaped. 

The largest body which kept together entered a 
great building, fancying its gates were those of the 
city, and were shut in. The Platseans thought of 
Setting fire to the building, but they gave up the 
idea, and the Thebans surrendered, and were all af- 
terwards killed. This circumstance of the murder 
of the prisoners we shall find afterwards brought 
great trouble upon the Platseans ; for it was con- 
trary to a promise made to a body of Thebans, who 
came in the morning, thinking to support their 
countrymen in their attempt, and who were in* 
duced to retire upon being told, that if they did, 
all their friends who were taken prisoners should 
be saved. 

Naturally enough the Athenians, considered 
this attack upon Platsea to be an insult to them- 
selves. They determined to revenge the Platseans ; 
and the Spartans offered to assist the Thebans; 
and then at last the great Peloponnesian war broke 
out. 

As this war is one of the most important in 
Grecian history, and concerned the whole nation, it 
may be as well fully to understand what was the 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 167 

condition of the two states with regard to their 
allies. 

On the side of Sparta were all the Pelojonne- 
eian states, except Argos, which remained neutral. 
Beyond the Isthmus their allies were Megara, Pho- 
cis, Locris, and Boeotia. The iEtolians also were 
friendly to them, and they were supported by three 
Corinthian colonies in Acarnania ; and as they 
wished still further to strengthen themselves, they 
sent ambassadors to Persia to beg for the help of 
the Persian' king ; and entreated for ships and 
money from the Greeks who had settled in Italy 
and Sicily. 

The Athenians could reckon upon greater for- 
eign support than the Spartans. The islands of 
Zacynthus and Corcyra, and all those lying between 
Peloponnesus and Crete ; the Cyclades, except Me- 
los and Thera; Caria, Doris, and Ionia, in Asia 
Minor : the countries near the Hellespont and 
along the coast of Thrace, were all either in alli- 
ance with or tributary to them : and though, in 
Greece itself, the Plataeans were their chief support, 
yet Thessaly and the greater part of Acarnania were 
favourable to them. From one town in Locris also 
the Athenians could look for assistance ; — Naupac- 
tus, which was peopled by the Messeniaus, who we 
may remember rebelled against Sparta in the time 
of Cimon, and sought refuge in the fortress of 
Ithome. 

When the Spartans took Ithome, which they 
did after a great deal of difficulty, — they allowed 
the Messenians to quit Peloponnesus, on condition 
of beii.g made slaves if they returned. The Athe- 
nians, having just at that time obtained possession 
of the town of Naupactus, gave it to these poor 
exiles ; and of course, ever after, the Messenians 
of Naupactus were devoted to their cause. 



168 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Archidamus, the king of Sparta, who had so 
strongly urged the delay of the war, was the person 
who first took the command of the Peloponnesian 
army. Even to the last he had hopes of peace ; and, 
when his forces were actually collected together on 
the Isthmus of Corinth, he sent a last ambassador 
to Athens. But the envoy was not even admitted 
within the walls ; for Pericles had persuaded the 
people to decree that no embassy should be received 
from the Spartans whilst they were under arms. 
The ambassador was ordered to quit Attica that 
very day, and persons were appointed to travel with 
him to the frontiers, to prevent his holding com- 
munication with any one by the way. He parted 
from his conductors exclaiming, " This day will 
be the beginning of great evils to Greece." 

And so indeed it proved. The very first step 
that was taken was a sad one, at least for the Athe- 
nians, where pride and ambition had in such a great 
measure caused the war. 

It was according to the advice of Pericles. 
Bich indeed they were, as he told them, in gold and 
silver, and strong in their ships and their forces ; 
but it would not be well to expose themselves to 
the invasion of an enemy by remaining scattered in 
the country. Athens must be their refuge, and 
thither all must remove with their families and pro- 
perty. This counsel was followed, but not without 
great grief. Since the Persian invasion Athens had 
become very prosperous ; and the Athenians had 
not only learnt to take pleasure in country pursuits, 
but many rich persons had elegant villas, in which 
they delighted to spend a great portion of their 
time. These they could no longer enjoy ; and, to 
the poor husbandmen, the thought of giving up 
their quiet, peaceful homes, with all the pleasant 
sights and the fresh air of the open fields, for the 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 169 

narrow, crowded streets of a great city, was a trial 
scarcely to be borne. 

Nothing else, however, was to be done ; the flocks 
and cattle were removed to Euboea, and the islands 
near ; and all other things that could be carried 
away — even the timbers of the honses — were taken 
with their owners into Athens. The city was not 
large enough, suddenly to receive so many persons. 
A few had friends or relations who gave them shel- 
ter, but the greater part were obliged to find refuge 
in the temples, or to live in the towers on the walls, 
or to build little huts for themselves in any vacant 
spot they could find. Such hardships would have 
been enough to damp the spirits of any other people ; 
but the Athenians were not to be soon discouraged. 
They did indeed think that extraordinary events 
were going to happen ; and reports were spread of 
prodigies being seen, and of an earthquake having 
taken place in the holy island of Delos, supposed 
to be safe from such calamities — all of which caused 
a great deal of expectation and wonder : but, upon 
the whole, the Athenians were full of hope, and 
awaited cheerfully and bravely the advance of the 
Peloponnesian army. 

It was not difficult to remain quiet whilst the 
enemy's forces were at a distance ; but the Athen- 
ians soon beheld a sight which roused their anger 
and their energy to the utmost. Archidamus, on 
the return of the Spartan envoy from Athens, hav- 
ing assembled his officers, and warned them to pro- 
ceed cautiously, and to keep their troops carefully 
in order, set forth on his road to Attica. He ad- 
vanced slowly, but it was only that he might inflict 
greater evils in the end. The harvest was near ; 
the corn just ripe ; and as the army approached 
one of the most fertile districts of Attica, only seven 
or eight miles from Athens, the unfortunate Atheni- 
15 



170 HISTORY" OF GREECE. 

ans saw the troops wasting their rich lands, whilst 
they were pent up within the walls of the city, un- 
able to raise an arm for their defence. In grief 
and indignation they reproached Pericles for his 
advice, but Pericles was immovable. a Trees cut 
down," he said, '-might shoot again, but men were 
not to be replaced." He could not be induced either 
to lead an army into the field, or to call an assembly 
to consult upon the subject. All he would do was 
to provide for the defence of the walls, and to send 
out horsemen to protect the neighbourhood of the 
city. In the end, his decision was proved to be a 
wise one. Archidamus, finding that he could not 
bring the Athenians to a battle, and knowing that 
the provisions for his army were nearly consumed, 
thought it better to retreat ; and, after travelling 
through the country, destroying every thing that 
came in his way, he returned home and disbanded 
his forces. 

Archidamus had not left Attica before the Athe- 
nian fleet set sail to revenge the injuries he had 
inflicted. One fleet ravaged the coast of Pelopon- 
nesus, another wasted the lands of Locris ; whilst 
the people of iEgina, who had made special com- 
plaints against Athens before the war began, were 
driven from their homes, and sent to wander in 
exile, and were only saved by the Lacedaemonians, 
who gave them permission to settle on the borders 
of Laconia. Besides these successes, the island of 
Cephallenia surrendered to the Athenians, and they 
were offered the support and friendship of a power- 
ful king of Thrace, and of Perdiccas of Macedon, 
who was formerly their enemy. 

So far all seemed prosperous ; but success in a 
war carried on in Greece against Grecians, was very 
different from success when the Persians were re- 
pelled. Though Athens prospered, other states 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 171 

suffered ; and this was especially the case with 
Megara, a small state, one of the foremost to make 
complaints against Athens, and the inhabitants of 
which had incurred the vengeance of the Athenians 
some time before, by having caused the death of 
an Athenian herald. As the war went on, the Spar- 
tans and Peloponnesians entered Attica once every 
year, whilst the Athenians ravaged Megara twice. 
The hatred of the Athenians against the Megarians 
was indeed so great, that part of the oath taken 
by the ten generals who commanded the Athenian 
armies was, to invade Megara twice a year. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE PLAGUE AT ATHENS. 
b. c. 430. 

In the winter of the first year of the Peloponnesian 
war, when both the Athenians and the Spartans 
were obliged, from the season, to cease from hosti- 
lities, Pericles, according to the custom of his coun- 
try, pronounced a funeral oration over those who 
had fallen in battle. 

He spoke of the glory of Athens, her laws, her 
freedom, the extent of her commerce, the reverence 
shown to the gods, the enjoyments provided for the 
poor, the education bestowed upon the young, the 
taste and learning which gave her a right to be 
called the School of Greece. But something very 
different from glory and greatness was then present 
to him. For at that moment there lay before him 
ten coffins of cypress wood — one for each of the 
tribes into which the citizens of Athens were divid* 
ed ; and within the coffins were the remains of the 



172 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

dead — the victims to the pride and ambition of 
their country — about to be laid to their rest amidst 
the trees and shrubs in the beautiful burying ground 
of the Ceramicus. 

They were the first of a vast number who died 
in those terrible wars. But the Athenians had not 
then learnt to regret the wilfulness with which they 
had urged on the quarrel with the Spartans. When 
the funeral procession of citizens and strangers, 
mourning friends and wailing women, followed the 
dead to their graves, no one, probably, considered 
whether the cause for which those they lamented 
had died was a right one. They were comforted 
by the thought that their friends had fought brave- 
ly, and perished honourably, that their names would 
be remembered with gratitude, and their sons edu- 
cated at the public expense. 

It is only when we trace the history of Greece 
to its end, that we can understand the miserable 
consequences of the Peloponnesian war, and see the 
difference between a people fighting for the defence 
of their country against a foreign enemy, as the 
Athenians fought at Marathon and Salamis ; and 
the same people giving way to a love of power, and 
a wish for conquest, and engaging in wars with 
those who ought to have been their firmest allies. 

In the one case, war, in spite of its miseries, 
produced unselfish actions and high principles, and 
brought lasting honour upon the nation ; in the 
other, it began in jealousy, tyranny, and suspicion, 
and ended in ruin. 

And so, we might almost be inclined to think 
that the anger of Heaven against those who en- 
gaged wrongfully in war, was shown in the fearful 
plague which the next year visited Attica. It 
broke out early in the spring, just as Archidamus 
had returned with his armies, to invade the coun 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



ifa 



try. Tlie winter had been uncommonly wet, and 
the summer was singularly hot, whilst there were 
none of those refreshing sea-breezes which usually 
made the warmth endurable. The city of Athens 
was crowded to excess ; not only every house was 
filled, but the huts which had been built up to re- 
ceive the country people, still remained standing, 
and the close little rooms in the towers on the walls 
were all occupied. The disease first broke out in 
Piraeus, and many thought that the Spartans had 
poisoned the waters ; but, as it spread wider and 
wider, they became convinced that it was a calamity 
not brought upon them by man. The open streets, 
the public buildings, even the temples of the gods, 
were strewn with the bodies of the dead ; whilst 
around the walls and cisterns lay crowds of the 
suffering and the dying, who had rushed from 
their homes in the eagerness of an unquenchable 
thirst, longing only to plunge into the waters, 
though death was to be the certain consequence. 
For men in such terrible seasons seldom thinly of 
that which will come after death. Even in Chris- 
tian countries, when visited by a like calamity, the 
very greatness of the suffering and the danger has 
been known to make evil persons more hardened in 
their crimes ; and in Athens, amongst a heathen 
people, the wickedness of those days of terror must 
have been something too dreadful to think upon. 
Because men knew they might, in all probability, 
die the next day, they gave way to every sinful in- 
clination of the present hour ; and, so great was 
the general selfishness, that the few persons who 
ventured to attend upon their dying relations were 
considered to show extraordinary virtue. In that 
respect, indeed, they were very different from Chris- 
tians, who have continually risked their lives in cases 
of equal danger, not only for their friends, but for 



174 HISTORY OF GR.EECE. 

the poorest and most wretched of their fellow-crea* 
tures. 

Whilst the Athenians were thus suffering from 
the plague, it was not difficult for Pericles to per- 
suade them that it was better to keep within the 
walls of Athens, as they had done the year before, 
and not to try and stop the Lacedsemonians, when 
they were invading the country. After a time, 
however, he agreed to sail to the coasts of Pelopon- 
nesus and ravage them, but the expedition was un- 
successful, for the plague broke out in the fleet, and 
obliged him to return home. 

The people of Athens now began to complain, 
both of the war and of Pericles, who had induced 
them to undertake it. They even insisted upon 
sending an embassy to Sparta to propose peace, but 
the Spartans would not listen to them, for they 
knew that it was only because the Athenians were 
weak and frightened that they had thought about 
it. Pericles alone was hopeful. He called toge- 
ther an assembly, and made a long speech to cheer 
them, begging them not to be cast down by their 
calamities, and to think only of the honour of their 
country. " Their empire," he said, " was not con- 
fined to the territories of their present subjects, 
but might be extended wherever they chose to turn 
their arms ; for the sea was all their own, and, in 
comparison with the conquests they might make 
by that means, Attica itself ought no more to be 
valued than a little flower-pot, the trifling ornament 
of a rich man's estate." 

These flattering words soothed the Athenians, 
who were always pleased to be told that they were 
a great people, and they consented to continue the 
war. But they were still rather angry with Peri 
cles, and some persons made charges against him, 
as to the way in which he had commanded the ar- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 175 

mies when he was their general. He was brought 
to trial, and obliged to pay some money as a fine ; 
but when the Athenians had thus indulged their 
spite, they were satisfied, and Pericles was restored 
to his office, and ruled every one just as he had done 
before. But the time was drawing near when all 
the great projects and ambitious thoughts of this 
celebrated man were to end. The war had been 
carried on for two years and a half, and the pesti- 
lence still raged in Athens. It had come very 
near to Pericles. His sister, some of his most 
valued relatives and friends, and two of his sons, 
had perished by it. The elder son was worthless 
and extravagant, and had caused his father much 
sorrow ; but the younger was a boy of much pro- 
mise, and all the hopes of Pericles were fixed upon 
him. The great Athenian had borne many trials 
in his life — false accusations, anxieties, disappoint- 
ments, the loss of those he loved, and nothing had 
been able to move him from his usual calmness ; 
but when, according to the custom of the Greeks, 
he approached the dead body of his favourite child 
to place a garland of flowers upon the lifeless head, 
the agony of his grief overcame all self-command, 
and bursting into tears, he sobbed aloud. 

It was his last and most grievous trial, and his 
own death followed in the autumn of the year, b. c. 
429. The illness which seized him was a lingering 
one, though it seems, in some respects, to have re- 
sembled the pestilence. He retained his senses to 
the last. The women who attended him hung a 
charm round his neck, under the idea that it would 
be of service ; but Pericles had no belief in such 
superstition, and smiled as he showed the charm to 
one of his friends, saying, " that it was a proof to 
what a pass illness had brought him, when he could 
submit to such trifling." As he grew worse and 



176 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

worse, his friends collected round his bed, and tried 
to relieve their grief by recalling v all his brave ac- 
tions, and the trophies of victory he had raised, but 
Pericles, who had before appeared insensible, roused 
himself, and interrupted them. " They had omit- 
ted," he said, " the most glorious praise which he 
could claim. Other generals had been as fortunate, 
but he had never caused an Athenian to put on 
mourning." This was, indeed, a singular boast 
from the man who had urged the Athenians to 
engage in the Peloponnesian war. But so it is 
that the wisest of mankind deceive themselves. 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE SIEGE OF PLAT^A. 

BEGUN B. C. 429. 

The situation of the Athenians after the death of 
Pericles was not by any means to be envied. There 
was no one at all able to take his place. On the 
contrary, the person who soon made himself the 
most remarkable, was a cruel, coarse-minded man 
named Cleon, a tanner by trade, not very clever, 
and in ' no way fit to rule ; but who gained the 
notice of the common people by speaking out boldly, 
making complaints of the rich, and pretending to be 
very anxious for the interests of the poor. Cleon 
had been one of the foremost to find fault with 
Pericles during his lifetime, and the last years of 
Pericles had been rendered anxious and unhappy 
by the efforts made by his enemy to disturb the 
minds of the people, and excite them to murmur 
against his government. No two persons, indeed, 
could have been more unlike than Pericles and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 177 

Cleon. In their manner of addressing the people 
in public speeches, the difference was especially re- 
markable. Pericles, as we have already said, was 
calm and dignified. His expressions were lofty, 
and his words well chosen, and he seldom moved 
from his position. But Cleon, when he spoke, cast 
aside his upper garment, clasped his thigh, and 
rushed from one side of the speaker's stand to the 
other ; and this eagerness caught the attention of 
the common people, and so gave him influence over 
them. 

It was not, however, just at first after the death 
of Pericles, that Cleon had so much power. Two 
persons, one a dealer in flour, and the other a cattle 
dealer, who married Aspasia, brought themselves 
into notice for a little time ; but the dealer in flour 
was soon surpassed by Cleon, and the cattle dealer 
died, and then Cleon was for a time left alone with- 
out any one to be his rival. 

It was very unfortunate for the Athenians to 
be left in such bad hands, for there was much to be 
done which required talent abroad, and upright 
conduct in the management of affairs at home. 
The Peloponnesian war still went on, and brought 
suffering and ruin upon many. The Potidseans 
who, we may remember, had been besieged by the 
Athenians before it actually broke out, defended 
themselves till they were reduced to such dreadful 
misery by the want of provisions, that they were 
forced to live upon human flesh. Then they yield- 
ed, and the Athenians took possession of the town, 
and allowed the Potidaeans to go away wherever 
they liked. But such a permission could have been 
little better than death, since their homes were 
destroyed, and their friends had perished. 

The siege of Platsea was yet more memorable 
than that of Potidaea. It was begun in the year 



178 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

b. c. 429, the same year in which Pericles died. 
In the beginning of that year king Archidamus oi 
Sparta crossed the isthmus with his armies, as he 
had so often done before ; but instead of proceeding 
to Attica, he directed his course to Platsea, which 
was in alliance with Athens. The Plateeans sent 
envoys to remonstrate with him, reminding him of 
all they had done for the defence of Greece at the 
time of the Persian invasion ; and that after the 
battle of Platsea their state had been declared in- 
dependent, and the other Grecian states were bound 
to protect it. Archidamus did not deny this, but 
he insisted that the Platseans should be neutral in 
the war, and that if they would not assist Sparta 
they should also refuse to help Athens. To this, 
however, the Platseans could not venture to agree. 
Their wives and children were then at Athens, and 
might suffer if they offended the Athenians. The 
siege accordingly began. There were only 400 
Platseans in the city, 80 Athenians, and 1 10 women, 
who had remained behind to prepare food for the 
men. Yet this small force was able to resist the 
united efforts of a large army for two years. Ar- 
chidamus did his very utmost to take the town. 
He was engaged for seventy days and nights in 
trying to raise a strong mound before it, made of 
earth and rubbish, wood and stones : and if he had 
succeeded he might easily have gained possession 
of the city. The Platseans knew this, and they 
used to creep out at night through an opening made 
in their wall, and scoop out and carry away largo 
quantities of earth from the lower part of the mound. 
The Peloponnesians continued to repair these 
breaches ; and then the Plataeans dug a deep hole, 
or shaft as it is called, within the city, and when 
they had sunk it very low, they worked an under- 
ground passage from it to the bottom of the mound, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 179 

so as to undermine the mound. Besides this, they 
built up an inner wall to protect themselves in case 
their enemies should break down the outer one. 
Archidamus began at last to despair of ever taking 
the city, but he resolved to make one more attempt. 
He caused the hollow space between the mound 
and the wall, and even on the other side as far as 
the Peloponnesians could reach, to be filled with 
faggots which had been steeped in pitch and sul- 
phur. These faggots were then set on fire. The 
blaze was something quite extraordinary. One of 
the Greek historians says that it was like a burning 
forest, and if the wind had carried the flames 
towards the houses in the town, no doubt the whole 
place would have been burnt. But it so happened 
that the wind did not set that way, and though the 
Platseans were terribly frightened their town was 
saved. Archidamus now resolved to give up all 
idea of taking the town by force, and instead, he 
dug ditches, and built walls with towers, all round 
it, and set soldiers to guard them, so that no one 
could go into the city nor come out of it without 
being discovered. He then returned himself to 
Sparta, leaving the Boeotians and the other allies 
to watch Platsea, and feeling sure that in the end 
they must gain possession of the place. Even if 
they were not successful in any other way, it was 
certain that the poor people not being able to 
provide themselves with fresh food, would be obliged 
to yield when all which they had within the wails 
was gone. 

After a defence of two years the Platseans be- 
came so weak from want of food that they were 
quite desperate. Some one at length proposed that 
they should try and escape through the midst of 
their enemies : and the very moment the plan was 
mentioned it was agreed to. A certain time was 



180 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

fixed upon for making the attempt, but as it drew 
near, half of the men were frightened, and only two 
hundred and twenty were bold enough to carry out 
the undertaking. It was then the depth of winter, 
and on a dark stormy night, a small party, very 
lightly armed, and having their right feet bare, to 
keep them from slipping in the mud, crossed the 
ditch that Archidamus had dug round the town, 
and planted ladders, made for the purpose, against 
the enemy's wails. No one heard them, for the 
howling of the wind drowned the noise of their 
movements, and the soldiers, who ought to have 
watched from the battlements, had taken shelter 
in the towers. The Plataeans mounted the ladders, 
one by one, as cautiously as possible. But one of 
them unfortunately, in laying hold of a brick on the 
battlements, dislodged it, and as it fell, the nearest 
sentinel was alarmed. The besiegers were called 
to the walls, but no one knew what was to be done, 
or where he was to go : and just then the party of 
Platgeans who had remained in the city sallied out, 
according to an agreement made beforehand, on 
the side of the town opposite to that by which their 
companions had escaped, and thus greatly increased 
the confusion. There were, however, a body of 
three hundred men amongst the besiegers, who 
were always kept in readiness to march at a mo- 
ment's notice, and these immediately set forth in 
search of the place from whence the alarm had 
arisen. Before they could discover it, some of the 
fugitives had made themselves masters of two tow- 
ers on the wall which they had scaled ; and after 
killing the sentinels, had mounted to the roofs, and 
by discharging their arrows at their enemies, pre- 
vented them from drawing near, whilst the rest of 
their friends were climbing the ladders and escap- 
ing. When all were safe on the other side of the 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 181 

wall , the men came down from the towers. But 
their difficulties were not over. Another ditch was 
in their way, very deep, and only thinly covered by 
a crust of ice. The greater number had crossed, 
and the last of their body were preparing to follow, 
when the three hundred besiegers came up with 
their torches. This, however, was not so great a 
danger as it seemed, for the Platgeans being in the 
dark could not well be discovered, whilst their en- 
emies were plainly seen, and, by discharging arrows 
at them, the Platseans kept them at a distance, and 
so moved away in good order. 

The besiegers no sooner found out what had 
happened than they made signals by fire from the 
walls, in order to give notice to the Thebans ; for 
Thebes was only a few miles from Plataea, and the 
inhabitants of the two cities had long been enemies. 
The Platgeans were prepared for this, and in order 
to prevent the Thebans from understanding what 
was meant, they also lighted fire signals on their 
own walls, by which means the Thebans were quite 
confused. The fugitives in the meanwhile pro- 
ceeded for some little distance on the road to 
Thebes in order to mislead their enemies, but when 
they saw by the light of the torches which their 
pursuers carried, that they were following in a 
wrong direction, they turned into a road leading to 
Athens, and soon afterwards arrived safely, and had 
a joyful meeting with their wives and children. 
One poor man, however, amongst the two hundred 
and twenty who had escaped, fell into the enemy's 
hands after he had crossed the outer ditch ; and 
seven turned back in a fright, and reported that all 
their companions had been killed. The Plataean3 
in the city, in consequence of this report sent a 
message to the besiegers in the morning begging to 
have the bodies of their friends restored to them. 
16 



182 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

and then to their great delight heard the joyful news 
of their safety. No doubt many then wished that 
they also had been bold enough to escape, and the 
wish must have been sadly increased afterwards, 
for they had fatal reasons to regret their fears, 
from the events which in the end took place. For 
a considerable time they continued still to hold eut 
against their enemies, but being at length nearly 
starved, they were forced to yield. No promises 
of safety were made them, and five judges were sent 
from Sparta to try them for their offences. 

The only question which the judges asked was 
whether during the war the Platseans had done any 
service to Sparta and her allies. This question 
was quite sufficient to show the unfortunate Pla- 
tseans that their enemies were determined to be re- 
venged upon them. They tried in the most touch- 
ing way to move the Spartans to pity, and recalled 
all that they had ever done in former days to help 
them, ending with an entreaty that they might not 
be given over to the Thebans, since they would 
rather die by hunger, the most fearful of all deaths, 
than fall into the hands of such bitter enemies. 
The Spartans were moved by this mournful appeal, 
but the cruel Thebans, who were standing by, spoke 
next, and endeavoured to harden their hearts again. 
They said that the Platseans were the friends of the 
Athenians, and therefore enemies to the liberty of 
Greece ; and they reproached them for having, a 
few years before, murdered the body of Thebans 
who had been invited to take possession of Platsea, 
by some of the principal inhabitants. For these 
offences they demanded vengeance. 

The Spartan judges granted it. One by one the 
Platseans were brought forward, and each was again 
asked whether he had aided Sparta and her allies 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 183 

in the war. The answer could only be No; and 
the sentence of death was then passed. 

Two hundred Platseans and twenty Athenians 
perished on this occasion, and the women were 
made slaves. From that time the state of Plataea 
ceased to exist. The city was given over to the 
Thebans, and a year afterwards razed to the ground. 

Whilst the siege of Platsea was going on, the 
Peloponnesians and the Athenians carried on the 
war in different places ; sometimes one side being 
successful, and sometimes the other. The Athe- 
nians had a large fleet, and a skilful admiral, and 
were upon the whole victorious by sea. But on the 
other hand, the Spartans planned an attack upon 
Piraeus, which frightened the Athenians extremely, 
and although they did not carry it out, as they at 
first intended, yet they did succeed in plundering 
the island of Salami's which was very near it. 

Besides other disasters the Athenians also lost 
at this period the friendship of the island of Les- 
bos, famed for its wealth and its navy. The inhab- 
itants were tired of being subject to Athens, and 
having fortified their chief city, Mitylene, they de- 
termined to revolt and join the Spartans. 

It was on the occasion of this revolt that the 
cruel character of Cleon, the Athenian, was first 
remarkably shown. Paches, one of the Athenian 
generals, having besieged and taken Mitylene, sent 
some of the leaders of the revolt prisoners to 
Athens ; at the same time begging to know what 
was to be done with the city and its inhabitants. 

The question was discussed in the public As- 
sembly. Cleon urged strongly that the Mityle- 
naeans should be severely punished. " If the Athe- 
nians," he said, " did not at once make an example 
of such rebels, there would be no end to the dan- 
gers and contests which they would bring upon 



184 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

themselves, since their other allies would think that 
they too might revolt whenever they pleased. He 
therefore proposed that all the men m Mitylene 
should be put to death, and all the women and chil- 
dren made slaves. Cleon's eagerness gained his 
point. The decree was passed, and the very next 
day the order was despatched to Paches at Mity- 
lene. But the Athenians, though they were harsh 
when excited, soon began to repent. They felt that 
they had acted hastily, and some Mitylensean envoys 
then in Athens easily persuaded the magistrates to 
call another Assembly, and consider the question 
again. Cleon repeated his arguments, and the 
friends of the Mitylenseans said all they could 
against him ; and this time the Athenians decided 
for mercy. A vessel was instantly made ready 
which was to bear orders to Paches contrary to 
those that had been determined on the day before. 
The Mitylensean envoys put wine and bread on 
board, and promised to reward the crew largely if 
they should arrive in time to save their country- 
men ; and the vessel set. sail. The men rowed night 
and day, sleeping in turn, and eating bread dipped 
in wine and oil, whilst they worked at the oars. 
They met with no contrary winds, and as the crew 
of the first vessel had not been in any haste to per- 
form their disagreeable errand, they arrived very 
soon after them. Paches had just read the cruel 
decree, and was about to execute it. But the coun- 
ter orders stopped him, and the unfortunate Mity- 
lenseans were saved. The next intelligence, how- 
ever, which reached them from Athens must have 
saddened all their hearts. Cleon had persuaded 
the Athenians to put to death all the prisoners who 
had been sent to Athens, without allowing them 
any trial ; and orders were now given that the walla 
of Mitylene should be pulled down, the ships be* 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 185 

longing to it seized, and nearly the whole of the 
island of Lesbos be given over to Athenian colo- 
nists. 



CHAPTER XXL 

PYLOS TAKEN AND FORTIFIED. 
b. c. 425. 

Many dreadful events, worse than those which have 
been already described, happened during the course 
of the Peloponnesian war, for men were everywhere 
full of deadly anger and distrust. In almost every 
city in Greece there were two parties ; the nobles, 
who wished to side with the Lacedaemonians ; and 
the people, who were inclined to take part with the 
Athenians. No person was allowed to remain 
quiet, without saying which of the two he -preferred ; 
or if he tried to do so he was considered an enemy 
by both. This disagreement spread amongst private 
families, so that husbands and wives, parents and 
children, were opposed to each other. Persons who 
had once been friends were now suspicious and re- 
vengeful. Those who were the most violent and 
reckless, led on their companions to commit all 
kinds of cruelty ; and piety, benevolence, justice, 
and all right and honourable feelings, seemed at 
times entirely forgotten. Yet neither the Athe- 
nians nor the Spartans were without some superior 
men who, it might have been supposed, would have 
been able to guide them right. Cleon, indeed, had 
a great deal of influence at Athens, but there were 
two other generals, Nicias and Demosthenes, who 
were of a very different disposition — prudent, and 
sincere, and really brave ; whereas Cleon only made 
a pretence of courage. 



186 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

The Spartans also had a general on their side, 
of exceedingly high character, Brasidas, who distin 
guished himself very early in the war, and w r as 
their chief hero for many years. The great Greek 
historian, Thucydides, who liyed about this time, 
and wrote an account of the Peloponnesian war, 
praises this Spartan general far more than any other 
commander of his age. He says that the kindness 
of Brasidas, and his gentleness of manner, did more 
harm to the cause of the Athenians than even his 
great skill and bravery in battle ; for that he gained 
the hearts of his enemies, and so won them over to 
the Spartan side. 

But even such men as these were not able to 
prevent the evils of the long war, and indeed, hav- 
ing once taken part in it, as they were obliged to 
do, ihej thought it their duty to carry it on boldly, 
and to obtain as much power for their several states 
as they possibly could. 

It was not till the seventh year of the war that 
either side began to think of peace, and then it 
was Sparta who proposed it, in consequence of some 
serious losses, which are now to be related. De- 
mosthenes, the Athenian general, had, a short time 
before, obtained the permission of his fellow-citi- 
zens to sail over to Peloponnesus, land on the coast, 
and make any conquests he could. There was some 
discussion between him and the commanders of the 
fleet, in which he and his men sailed, as to where it 
would be best to go, but, a storm coming on, they 
were obliged to land at Pylos. in Messenia, which 
was just what Demosthenes wished. Pylos was a 
rocky headland, very difficult to be reached by land, 
and the plan of Demosthenes was to fortify it, so 
as to give the Athenians a fortress of their own in 
their enemy's country. The commanders of the 
fleet lciughed at the notion, and thought it merely 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 187 

an idle fancy ; but as the storm continued for sev 
eral days, and they were obliged to remain there, 
the men began to build up a wall just for the sake 
of passing away the time. There were plenty of 
stones near, which they put together as they best 
could, filling up the vacant spaces with mud, and as 
they had no masons' tools with them, they were 
obliged to do all the work with their hands. Pylos 
was only fifty miles from Sparta, and of course the 
Spartans soon heard what Demosthenes was doing. 
They did not, however, trouble themselves much 
about it at first, for they were engaged in celebrat- 
ing one of their festivals, and felt quite sure that 
they should be able to dislodge the Athenians at 
the first attack. 

The rough wall was finished in about six days, 
and then, as the storm was over, the commanders 
of the Athenian fleet sailed off with all their vessels 
except five, which were left, together with a small 
body of men, under the command of Demosthenes, 
The Spartan forces were at that time in Attica, but 
when intelligence arrived that Demosthenes was 
building a fortress in Peloponnesus, they set out for 
Pylos, and orders were given to the Spartan fleet 
to join them there. On their arrival they took 
possession of the little island of Sphacteria, which 
was just in front of Pylos, and prepared to over- 
whelm the Athenians by attacking their fortress on 
all sides. 

This, however, was a plan much more easily 
formed than executed. Demosthenes and his men 
defended themselves so skilfully, that although the 
Spartans were much more numerous, and were com- 
manded by the celebrated Brasidas, the Athenians 
were the more successful of the two ; and when 
their fleet soon afterwards came up to their assist- 
ance, they gained a complete victory. The body 



188 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

of Spartans who had been placed in the island of 
Sphacteria were now completely enc-losed by their 
enemies. Some of the noblest and most distinguish* 
ed persons in the state were amongst them, and 
there was little hope of rescuing them. 

This it was which made the Spartans so suddenly 
desirous of peace. Envoys were sent to Athens, 
and terms were proposed, to which it seemed likely 
the Athenians would agree. But, to their surprise, 
they found their offers refused. The Athenians 
were prouder than ever, and Cleon urged them to 
continue the war : and wlien the Spartan ambassa- 
dors saw that they could not obtain peace without 
giving up what they thought was their country's 
honour, they broke off the treaty and returned to 
Pylos. After this, the sieges of Pjdos by the 
Spartans, and of Sphacteria by the Athenians, 
were carried on for a considerable time. The 
Spartans in Sphacteria were well supplied with 
provisions, for the Spartan government promised 
freedom to the Helots, and great rewards to all 
other persons, who would carry them any. The 
Helots in consequence did their very utmost. 
Sometimes they would sail to the back of the 
island in the night, especially if it happened to be 
stormy, and they knew that the Athenian ships 
would not be likely to keep their stations near. 
Sometimes they contrived to dive under the water, 
carrying with tjiem a mixture of bruised seeds and 
honey for the soldiers ; and, by these and other 
means, they managed to escape the watchfulness of 
their enemies. The Athenians, on the contrary, 
had great difficulty in obtaining food, and suffered 
exceedingly from the want of water ; there was only 
one small spring in the fortress, and many of the 
soldiers were obliged to drink the bad, brackish 
water which they procured by digging into the 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 18S 

beach. Then, their ships were crowded into a 
very small space, and the landing was very difficult ; 
and yet the crews of the different vessels were 
obliged to go on shore by turns for their meals, 
which caused great inconvenience. 

The Athenians began, at last, to fear that after 
all they should never succeed in taking Sphacteria, 
and that it would have been wiser to listen to the 
Spartans, when they proposed peace. Cleon was 
now blamed for having given his advice against 
peace ; and, in order to pacify his fellow- citizens, 
he declared that the accounts brought them of what 
was going on at Pylos were not true. This, how- 
ever, did not satisfy the people, and Cleon then 
changed his tone, and began to find fault with the 
Athenian generals. " If," he said, " they had been 
any better than women, they would not have suf- 
fered such an easy conquest as that of Sphacteria 
to be so long delayed. Had he been in office, it 
would have been already finished." Nicias was one 
of the generals for the year, and every one knew 
that this taunt was aimed at him, for Cleon had 
a great dislike to him. Cleon's boast, however, 
only provoked the people, and they began to 
laugh at him, and to whisper amongst them- 
selves, that if he did think it so easy to take 
Sphacteria, he might as well try. Nicias him- 
self, who was present, hearing what was said, 
caught at the idea, and rose up in the assembly to 
propose gravely that Cleon should collect any force 
he might think necessary, and make the attempt. 
" Full permission," he said, " was given him by the 
generals." Cleon was extremely perplexed. He 
had not the least idea of being taken at his word, 
and did not know enough about war to venture 
upon such an expedition. The people quite enjoyed 
his annoyance, and insisted upon it that he should 



190 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

be forced to go. It might seem strange at first 
that they should have been willing to run such a 
risk, but in fact they knew, and so did Cleon, that 
it was the plan of Demosthenes, the general at 
Pylos, to make an attack himself upon the Spar- 
tans at Sphacteria; and, of course, with the help 
of such an able general, there was not so much to 
be feared from Cleon's ignorance. The Athenians, 
too, were not at all sorry to put Cleon in a situa- 
tion of danger, for they were beginning to be tired 
of him ; and they pleased themselves by thinking 
that if they did not conquer the Spartans, they 
might, at any rate, be rid of him, since he might be 
killed, or. if he failed, all his influence would be gone. 

Cleon set out for Pylos, and, when he arrived, 
found that Demosthenes was already preparing to 
attack the Spartans in their island. He would 
have done so long before if he had known well how 
many Spartans there were in Sphacteria ; but it 
was uninhabited, and covered by thick woods, which 
hid them, and gave them a great advantage over 
their enemies. A little while before, however, a 
party of Athenians, having landed on a corner of 
the island to dine, lighted a fire, which caught the 
wood near. The wind was blowing, and the flames 
spread in consequence, and very soon nearly the 
whole of the island was left bare. This made a 
great difference to Demosthenes ; and when Cleon 
arrived with additional forces, the Athenians lost 
no time in attacking the island, having first, how- 
ever, sent offers of peace to the Spartans, which 
were refused. Some of the Athenians landed in 
two divisions on opposite sides of the island, a little 
before daybreak, and others followed soon afterwards. 

The plan of Demosthenes was to begin the at- 
tack from a distance by showers of arrows, javelins, 
and stones ; and this was much more trying to the 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 191 

Spartans than a close combat. After a brave de- 
fence^ their strength began to be spent, and theil 
spirits to flag ; and when the Athenians drew near- 
er, the Spartans were not only distressed by the 
broken shafts of the weapons which had been show- 
ered upon them, and had pierced their armour, but 
were also nearly blinded and choked by a cloud of 
dust which rose under the trampling of the soldiers 
from the ashes of the burnt woods. So the con- 
flict continued till the day was wearing on, and the 
Athenians were growing faint with thirst and fa- 
tigue. A suggestion was then made which quickly 
decided the victory. The commander of some of 
the Athenian allies offered to take a small body of 
men, and make his way to a spot behind the Spar- 
tans, so as to attack them in two places at once. 
It was a difficult undertaking, for the soldiers had 
to march along the foot of some cliffs, and then to 
mount to the top by an ascent which was so steep 
that it had been thought quite secure, and had 
therefore been left unguarded. They succeeded, 
however, and the Spartans had no chance of es- 
cape. It was not the wish of the Athenians to 
kill them, but to take them prisoners to Athens. 
A herald, therefore, was sent, calling upon them to 
yield, and, after some delay, the summons was ac- 
cepted, and the Spartans were made prisoners. 
Twenty days after Cleon had set out from Athens, 
he returned — as he had said he would — victorious ; 
but how little of the merit was due to himself may 
easily be imagined. 

The Spartans were quite overwhelmed by their 
defeat, and the other Grecian states could scarcely 
believe the intelligence to be true. That Spartans 
should surrender, whilst they had arms in their 
hands and provisions for their support, was some- 
thing unheard of before. But no courage could 



192 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

have saved them, under such difficult circumstances. 
An Athenian asked insultingly, " Whether those 
who had fallen were of the true Spartan blood ?" 
"Remember," replied the Spartan to whom the ques- 
tion was addressed, "that we died, not in close com 
bat, but as the dart or the arrow happened to speed. ,J 



CHAPTER XXII. 

THE PEACE OF NICIAS. 
b. c. 421. 

The disasters of Sphacteria made Sparta again 
think of peace, but Athens was haughtier than ever, 
and as it was impossible to comply with the demand 
she made, the war went on as before. For another 
year the Athenians were the conquerors, but after 
that their usual success seemed to forsake them. 
A vast plan which they had formed against Boeotia 
failed, and this, joined with the victories of Brasi- 
das, the Spartan, in Thrace and Chalcidice, where 
the Athenians had several subject cities, at length 
humbled them so much that they agreed for a year's 
truce. Even this, however, was not lasting. Both 
sides found causes for disagreement before the truce 
was' actually settled, and it was not till the war had 
been carried on for eleven years, that a peace for 
fifty years, generally called the peace of Nicias, w.as 
concluded. 

This peace was confirmed at Athens, on the 4th 
of April, b. c. 421. It is called the peace of Nicias, 
because it was chiefly brought about by the exer- 
tions of Nicias. All parties, indeed, had by this 
time suffered enough to make them wish for it ; 
but, probably, one great cause of its being actually 
agreed upon, was that Cleon, the Athenian, and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 193 

Brasidas, the Spartan, who were the chief support- 
ers of the war, had died not long before. They 
were killed in the same battle, at Amphipolis, in 
Macedonia. Brasidas was wounded whilst boldly 
rushing against his enemies, but lived long enough 
to hear that his army was victorious. Cleon was 
killed in the act of retreating. 

Both these men had been urgent for war from 
different motives. Brasidas had the heathen love 
of glory, in which he had never been taught to see 
that there was anything wrong; but Cleon's only 
object was to engage the Athenians in foreign con- 
tests, in order that he might be able to carry on 
his own evil designs without observation. 

Brasidas was a very great loss to the Spartans. 
The people of Amphipolis allowed him to be buried 
within their walls, which was an extraordinary 
honour in a Greek city; the whole army attended 
his magnificent funeral, and sacrifices even were 
offered to him as if he were almost a god. He was 
especially beloved in that neighbourhood, for the 
kindness and prudence he had shown in bringing 
over the Athenian cities to the side of the Spartans, 
and for years afterwards his name was remembered 
and honoured. 

Thucydides, the Athenian historian, who wrote 
the history of the Peloponnesian war, was at one 
time engaged as a commander against Brasidas. 
The expedition which he undertook was not success- 
ful, although he showed great skill in it, and the 
Athenians brought him to trial, and it is supposed 
that he was condemned to death, and to save him- 
self, went into exile. At any rate, it is certain, 
that he was absent from his country for twenty 
years, and during that time wrote the history which 
has made his name famous for ages. He was a very 
great as well as a very clever man. and so free from 
17 



194 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

any feeling of revenge against those who had un* 
justly punished him, that in his writings he say* 
nothing against them, and only mentions his mis- 
fortunes as giving him the opportunity of collecting 
the information necessary for his history. 

The Athenians and Spartans kept the peace 
which had been agreed upon for about seven years ; 
that is to say, they did not invade each other's ter- 
ritories during that time ; but the war cannot pro- 
perly be said to have been at an end, for neither 
party strictly observed the terms agreed upon, and 
the smaller states, especially Corinth and Argos, 
being jealous of both, tried to form a league inde- 
pendent of them, of which Argos was to be the 
head. These circumstances caused much suspicion 
and ill feeling ; and it was easy to perceive that 
the contest would after a while be renewed. 

It seems, indeed, that there were never wanting 
persons at Athens who preferred war to peace. 
Now that Cleon was dead, another man rose up, 
whose whole advice and desire was, that the alliance 
between Sparta and Athens might again be broken. 
This person was ALcibiades, a young person of high 
birth, of the family of the Alcmseonids, and a rela- 
tion of Pericles. The father of Alcibiades was 
killed in battle when his son was about eight years 
old, and Alcibiades was then put under the care of 
Pericles ? who being very prudent in all money ar- 
rangements, managed his affairs extremely well. 
Alcibiades inherited from his father one of the 
largest fortunes in Athens, and from the wise care 
of Pericles, this was so much increased, that when 
he grew up to be a man, he came into possession 
of immense riches. He was besides exceedingly 
handsome, and very quick and clever, and all these 
seeming advantages gave him distinction from his 
childhood. But. they were not really blessings; 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 195 

they helped to encourage his natural faults, and 
in the end brought him to ruin. His temper was 
extremely hasty, and so determined was he upon 
having his own way that nothing could stop him. 
As an instance of this disposition, it is said that 
when he was one day playing as a child in a narrow 
street, a waggon came up, which would have inter- 
rupted him, and in order to hinder it from advanc- 
ing he laid himself down before the wheels. He 
was also both vain and proud. At one moment he 
would flatter the people of Athens absurdly, and 
the next provoke them by an insult. But that 
which was worse than any thing else, he was not 
sincere. Instead of gaining his object, whatever it 
might be, in a straightforward way, he always had 
some scheme in hand which might be very clever, 
but was certainly cunning, and unworthy of an 
honourable man. His habits of life were selfish, 
extravagant, and luxurious, and he not only spent 
great sums of money at Athens, in order to gain 
the good will of the people, but also endeavoured 
to dazzle all Greece by his splendour. 

At the Olympic games he displayed greater 
magnificence than kings and princes. At one time 
he had seven chariots to contend in the same race, 
and won the first, second, and either the third or 
the fourth crown, and afterwards feasted all the 
spectators. 

On this occasion the states and cities subject 
to Athens paid him such homage as had never been 
shown to anybody before. One pitched a splendid 
Persian tent for him ; another furnished food for 
his horses ; a third provided the victims which 
were to be sacrificed by him to the gods ; and a 
fourth gave the wine and other things necessary 
for the banquet. 

On his return home he engaged Euripides, the 



196 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

first poet in Greece, to celebrate his victories, and 
caused two pictures to be painted to commemorate 
them, in one of which he was represented as the 
most exquisitely beautiful person that could be 
imagined. 

Of course all these whims and follies excited a 
good deal of notice ; and sensible persons began to 
think that they were not suitable in a state like 
Athens, where the general principle was that men 
ought to be as much as possible on an equality, or 
at least only distinguished by the services which 
they rendered to their country. 

But Alcibiades took delight in showing that he 
considered himself a privileged person, and beyond 
the reach of the laws ; and the people in general 
humoured him. For instance, it was the fashion 
amongst the young Athenians, in those days, to 
carry a tame quail under their cloaks. One day, 
at a public meeting, Alcibiades suffered his to 
escape, and the business of the whole assembly was 
stopped, till the bird was caught and given back to 
him. The favour thus shown him naturally made 
him still more conceited, and his rudeness and pre- 
sumption were often quite intolerable. 

A character like that of Alcibiades, could not, 
we might imagine, in any way, be attractive to good 
and wise men. Yet this was not the case. There 
was one person in Athens, Socrates, the philosopher, 
who saw much in Alcibiades to love, and who yet was 
himself so nearly perfect, that his character, when 
we read of it, seems more like that of a Christian 
saint than of a virtuous heathen. It was in fact 
the very goodness of Socrates which made him so 
merciful to the faults of another, and caused him 
to take so much pains to convert the headstrong, 
violent, careless Alcibiades, into a sober-minded, 
honourable, unselfish Athenian citizen. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 197 

Socrates was much older than Alcibiades. At 
the time of the peace of Nicias he must have been 
about forty-six years of age. Alcibiades was then 
not more than twenty-eight, and, as it has been re- 
marked, exceedingly handsome; whilst Socrates was 
singularly plain, — for he had a flat nose, thick lips, 
prominent eyes, and a very awkward figure. His 
temper was by nature extremely violent : indeed it 
is said that when he did at any time give way to 
it, it was actually terrible ; but in general it was 
kept under the strictest control. He had a very 
strong constitution, and was able to endure great 
hardships. His habits of life were of the plainest 
kind. He wore scanty clothing, went about with 
bare feet, and allowed himself only the simplest 
species of food, He was not of noble birth, for his 
father was a statuary, and he himself at one time 
gained his livelihood in the same way. His clever- 
ness, however, drew the attention of some of the 
chief persons in Athens, who took pains with his 
education ; and the celebrated Aspasia herself, it 
is said, instructed him in many kinds of knowledge. 
Like every other Athenian, he took part in the wars 
of the times. His strong constitution enabled him 
to bear hardships particularly well, and when many 
of his comrades sank under them he was still full of 
vigour and energy. Yet his peculiar habits follow- 
ed him wherever he went. A story is told, that on 
one occasion, whilst in the camp at Potidsea, he fell 
into a reverie early one summer morning, and stood 
perfectly motionless, without paying the least atten- 
tion to any one who spoke to him. So he contin- 
ued, not only for an hour or two, but for the whole 
day. When evening drew on, the soldiers, from 
curiosity, came and sat down by his side, and ate 
their evening meal ; but still without apparently 
disturbing him. At last some of them actually 



198 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

brought out their beds, that they might lie therft 
and watch him. Socrates took not the least notice 
of them. He remained in the same posture all 
through the night, and only woke up from his trance 
when the sun rose over Mount Athos the following 
morning. Then he started, offered a prayer to 
Apollo, the god of the sun, and went away. 

Such a man must have been a strange compan- 
ion in daily life ; but he was not allowed to follow 
his own way much in his own home, for his wife 
Xantippe was excessively cross, and was always 
scolding him when he did any thing she did not 
like ; and sometimes, when she thought he had been 
talking too long in public, she would rush after him 
and force him to go home with her. Socrates bore 
her temper with the greatest meekness, thinking it 
afforded him opportunities for conquering his own. 
Now and then he and Xantippe differed as to the 
manner of entertaining their visitors. Xantippe 
liked to have a handsome dinner prepared, but 
Socrates thought it right that the persons who 
came to see him should be contented with the 
same fare he had himself. He used to say, that 
" if they were wise and worthy people they would 
not care for luxuries ; and if they were not he 
would rather not receive them." 

Yet, with all his peculiarities, Socrates was not 
a person to live apart from other men. It was the 
custom for the philosophers in those days to take 
money for the lessons which they gave ; or, at any 
rate, to teach their pupils in private houses ; but 
Socrates did nothing of this kind. Sometimes he 
would seat himself under the shade of a plane tree, 
or beneath the rocks near the river Ilissus, to enjoy 
the quietness and coolness of a country scene; but 
he was more often to be met with in the dusty road 
between the Long Walls that joined Athens and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 199 

Piraeus ; or in the busy bustling port itself. When 
he appeared, a crowd generally gathered round him, 
attracted by his strange appearance, so different 
from the brilliant Athenians, with their gay, colour* 
ed dresses, and polished manners. At first, perhaps, 
Socrates would talk with the drovers, and tanners, 
and artisans, who were at work near him, and make 
them laugh at his jokes ; but by degrees he became 
more serious, and then, as his wonderfully sweet 
voice deepened into earnestness, and he discoursed 
of all that was good and right, and tried to prove 
the blessedness of virtue and the misery of vice, 
his hearers felt as if transfixed by a magic spell. 
Their hearts beat quickly, tears rushed to their 
eyes, and for the moment, doubtless, they felt— as 
many Christians also have felt, when listening to a 
far higher teaching, — that the ways of goodness, 
like those of religion, " are ways of pleasantness, 
and all her paths are peace." 

Like Christians also, many turned away and 
forgot. Amongst these was Alcibiades. It was 
impossible not to admire the eloquence and genius 
of the great philosopher, and Alcibiades long listen- 
ed to him willingly, for they were friends not only 
in Athens, but also amidst the scenes of war, where 
they were thrown together under circumstances 
which naturally encouraged a kindly feeling for 
each other. Alcibiades was once severely wounded, 
and was saved from falling into the hands of his 
enemies by the valour of Socrates. The reward of 
a crown, given for distinguished courage, was after- 
wards due to Socrates ; and though it was bestowed 
upon Alcibiades instead, the philosopher was not 
in the least jealous, but said every thing he could 
in praise of his friend. Alcibiades, on this occasion, 
was equally generous, for he openly proclaimed the 
superior merit of Socrates ; and afterwards we are 



200 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

told that he was enabled to protect Socrates from 
his enemies, as he had been saved himself. If Soc- 
rates had been contented with merely exciting ad- 
miration when he spoke, Alcibiades would have 
been his willing disciple always. But the philoso- 
pher desired to teach the rich young Athenian to 
govern his temper, to correct his evil inclinations, 
and to live a strict and virtuous life for the good 
of his country ; and the warnings and instructions 
which he gave were too severe for Alcibiades to 
bear. He turned away from Socrates, and listened 
to the teaching of other philosophers, the Sophists, 
as they were called — men, who did not allow that 
there was any real difference between right and 
wrong, and who encouraged him in indolence and 
presumption. The consequence of this teaching 
we shall see as the history proceeds. 

The conceit of Alcibiades had been much hurt 
when the peace of Nicias was concluded. At that 
time the Spartans took no notice of him, although 
he was a public man, but preferred rather to trans- 
act their business with the prudent, intelligent 
Nicias ; and for this insult he resolved to take re- 
venge. Every effort was made by him to break 
the peace ; and, having such an object in view, he 
encouraged the Athenians to enter into a treaty of 
alliance with Argoa, the constant enemy of Sparta, 
which in the end caused them to assist the Argives 
in a quarrel with the Lacedaemonians. These 
smaller contests were in fact always going on ; and 
thus, although the peace between Athens and 
Sparta was still formally kept, yet the miseries of 
war continued. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 201 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

COMMENCEMENT OF THE SICILIAN WAR, 
b. c. 415. 

Whilst Greece was in this jealous, unsettled con- 
dition, the attention of the Athenians was directed 
to a fresh object of conquest.; which, however, 
chiefly tended to the carrying on of the Pelopon- 
nesian war, since Sparta and her allies were in- 
duced to take part against them % 

This object was the conquest of Sicily. Even 
in the time of Pericles, the Athenians had formed 
designs against that island ; and, since then, they 
had often interfered in its affairs ; for, as there 
were several Greek settlements on the coasts, it 
was natural for the inhabitants to call upon the 
Greeks to assist them whenever they had quarrels, 
either amongst themselves, or with the Sicels, the 
natives of the island. 

It was an appeal of this kind which induced the 
Athenians to enter upon a Sicilian war. A dis- 
pute having broken out between the towns of Se- 
linus and Segesta, in Sicily, the Selinuntians sought 
for help from Syracuse, the most powerful city in 
the island ; and the Segestans sent ambassadors to 
Athens. The Segestans had good reason for ex- 
pecting a favourable hearing. Syracuse, the city 
which opposed them, had been founded by Dorians. 
The Syracusans, therefore, claimed kindred with 
the Spartans, who, we may remember, were a Dorian 
race, and were likely at any moment to help them 
in the event of a war. This was in itself a suffi- 
cient inducement to the Athenians to do all they 
could to lessen the power of Syracuse ; and when 
it is considered, besides, that the city was wealthy, 
and that the Athenians were restless, and longing 



202 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

for a decided war. it can scarcely be wondered at, 
if such powerful temptations proved too strong for 
their prudence and their better feelings. 

The help asked for was granted, and a fleet fit- 
ted out, to be placed under the command of Nicias, 
Alcibiades, and Lamachus, the last being a brave 
and honourable man, who was held in much esteem, 
though he had not before been employed in an\ 
very important service. 

The delight of Alcibiades was unbounded. To 
be the chief of such an expedition was all that he 
most earnestly desired. But the prudent Nicias 
neither desired the command nor approved of the 
undertaking. He was in ill health, and little able 
to undergo the hardships of a war ; and perhaps 
his prejudices against Alcibiades made him view 
the scheme on the dark side. Yet there was cer- 
tainly much to be said against it, and Nicias did 
not fail to show the Athenians clearly the danger 
which he dreaded. Even when the decree was 
passed, he begged them to consider it again, and to 
revoke it ; and, whilst he made the request, he re- 
minded them that no one had a better right than 
himself to be heard upon such a subject, since he 
was speaking against his own interests. — no one 
having more honour to gain by the expedition than 
himself. " They must not fancy," he said, " that 
when they sailed to a foreign land, they would 
leave peace at home. Their enemies in Greece 
would doubtless take the first opportunity of fall- 
ing upon them, whilst their forces were divided ; 
for, even at that moment, when they were setting 
out to found a new empire, many of their old sub- 
jects were in open revolt. It would surely be time 
enough to send assistance to strangers when they 
had provided for the safety of their own dominions. 
And neither ought they to listen to the counsels of 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 203 

their own citizens, when they were known to be 
recklessly ambitious. One there was, especially, 
who cared not in what danger he might involve his 
country, so that he might have a brilliant com- 
mand, which would afford him the means of sup- 
porting his extravagance, and of repairing the 
breaches it had made in his private fortune. 11 

Alcibiades rose to reply. " The extravagance 
which Nicias had censured was, in fact," he said, 
" a wise liberality. Even the magnificence which 
he had shortly before displayed at the Olympic 
games had reflected lustre upon Athens, and raised 
the credit of the state at a moment when persons 
supposed it was exhausted by war. But prosperity, 
he knew, was always attended by envy, and he was 
not surprised, therefore, that he had given offence. 
With regard to the Sicilian war, the dangers of 
which Nicias had spoken were exaggerated. The 
enemies whom they would leave behind were never 
less disposed to attack them ; and, if they were, 
the naval forces that remained would be sufficient 
to prevent any great damage. But, in fact, the 
spirit shown by the Athenians in invading Sicily, 
would cow the spirits of the Peloponnesians. Suc- 
cess in a distant island would probably make them 
masters of Greece ; whilst failure would be attended 
with no danger, since their fleet would enable them 
to stay as long as they thought fit, and to retire 
whenever they chose." He ended by observing, 
" that the eagerness of youth was no less needed 
in their public counsels than the sobriety of age ; 
and warned them that the high position which they 
had already attained could only be preserved by an 
uninterrupted series of brave enterprises." 

These arguments agreed with the wishes of the 
people, and the counsels of Nicias were set aside. 
The prudent general made one more effort to alar*m 



204 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

thorn. He reminded them of the immense forces 
which would be required, and of the enormous 
quantity of supplies which must be provided ; since 
they were likely to be detained at sea by contrary 
winds, or to be kept in places where food could not 
be had : whilst the land they were going to was so 
distant that it might take four months before news 
from the army could reach Athens. But these 
difficulties only served to rouse the spirit of the 
Athenians. They silenced Nicias by saying that 
the generals should have all the forces they might 
require ; and the preparations for the expedition 
immediately began. 

The news spread rapidly throughout Greece, 
and the Athenians themselves were in a state of the 
greatest possible excitement. Every old soldier 
who happened to have taken part before in the 
Sicilian quarrels was called upon to tell what he 
knew of the country ; and the sports and exercises 
of the young were interrupted, whilst they drew the 
form of the island of Sicily on the ground, and 
tried to settle what its position was with regard to 
Carthage and Africa, — a point much more difficult 
to decide than we can imagine, who have maps to 
refer to whenever we are in doubt. 

It was a time, too, when people were full of 
omens and prophecies, many of which were evil. 
Nicias was peculiarly superstitious. It is said that 
he kept a private soothsayer, whom he consulted in 
cases of difficulty; and, as it was well known that 
he disapproved of the war, it is probable that the 
Athenian priests announced as many bad omens as 
they could, in order to please him. Alcibiades, on 
his side, had friendly diviners, who declared that 
they had found some ancient predictions which 
foretold that the Greeks were to gain great renown 
in Sicily; and this, together with the favourable 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 205 

answers received from two oracles which he con- 
sulted, kept up the spirits of the people. The 
Oracle of Delphi, however, was against him. 

But further difficulties were still to be thrown 
in the way of the expedition. The preparations 
for the voyage were nearly completed when one 
morning it was discovered that several of the stone 
busts of Hermes, or Mercury, the messenger of the 
gods, which adorned the streets of Athens, had 
been broken and injured during the night. This 
might only have been a frolic of some idle persons ; 
but the Athenians, who looked upon such an act as 
an insult to the gods, and therefore a great crime, 
could not pass it over lightly. Persons were ap- 
pointed to inquire into the affair, and great rewards 
were offered to any one who would discover the 
offenders. At the same time all Athenians of every 
rank were called to reveal any other acts of impiety 
which they knew to have been comnfitted. This 
command was secretly meant to do injury to Alci- 
biades, who had before been suspected of irreverent 
behaviour ; and now a person came forward to 
charge him with a still greater offence, — the pro- 
fanation of what were called the Eleusinian mys- 
teries. 

These mysteries consisted of ceremonies and re- 
ligious acts which took place in the temple of De- 
meter or Ceres, the goddess of the earth, at Eleusis, 
in Attica ; and had been introduced amongst the 
Greeks from the earliest ages. It is said that they 
were first known and practised by the Egyptians. 
Some of the ceremonies might be witnessed by all 
persons, but the mysteries were secrets which were 
told only to a few, who were forbidden on any ac- 
count to reveal them. 

Alcibiades was accused of having divulged these 
mysteries by imitating the Eleusinian ceremonies 
18 



206 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

in a private house ; and hints were also given that 
he and some other persons were forming plots 
against the state. It was a very heavy charge 
against an Athenian general, and, if proved, would 
certainly be the means of removing him from his 
command. What Alcibiades, therefore, most de- 
sired was that it should be inquired into at once, 
whilst he was on the spot to defend himself. His 
enemies, however, knew that he would very probably 
be acquitted at that time, whether he were innocent 
or guilty, because the people were partial to him, 
and wished him to undertake the command of the 
Sicilian expedition ; and they contrived therefore 
to delay the trial, so that Alcibiades was obliged to 
set out on his great undertaking with a serious 
charge hanging over him, which might at any mo- 
ment cause his ruin. 

This circumstance alone may, doubtless, in a 
great measure have depressed his spirits ; but, when 
at length the day arrived on which the fleet was to 
sail, all other fears and hopes must have been for- 
gotten in the feelings excited by the departure. 
When the Athenian forces came down to embark 
at Piraeus, nearly the whole of the population of 
Athens, both citizens and foreigners, accompanied 
them to the water-side, and lined the shores of the 
harbour. Many were the mournful partings be- 
tween dear friends and near relations ; and even the 
sight of the immense fleet, and the number and 
splendour of the troops, which had never been sur- 
passed in any former wars, could not, at that instant 
have cheered them. For, how much that was 
precious to themselves and valuable to the state, 
was now about to be risked in the dangers of a long 
voyage and a distant war ! All was at length ready. 
By the sound of a trumpet silence was proclaimed ; 
and, after a pause, a solemn prayer, offered as with 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 207 

one mouth, from the mighty host, rose up to heaven. 
The voices of the multitudes who stood gazing from 
the shore, joined in the chorus of entreaty ; drink 
offerings to the gods were poured forth from every 
ship, from vessels of gold and silver ; and when the 
paean, or hymn of hope and triumph, had been sung, 
the fleet moved slowly out of the harbour. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

CONTINUATION OF THE SICILIAN WAR. 

When the news of the preparations made by the 
Athenians for the Sicilian war reached Syracuse, 
the inhabitants of that city could with difficulty be 
persuaded to believe it. It was well known that 
Sparta and the other Peloponnesian states were at 
that very time enemies of Athens ; and it seemed 
exceedingly unlikely that the Athenians should 
venture upon a distant and dangerous expedition, 
and interfere with the quarrels of other people, 
whilst they were so likely to be invaded themselves. 
Hermocrates, however, one of the chief persons in 
Syracuse, who had before exerted himself much to 
promote peace amongst the Greek towns in Sicily, 
declared that he had received the intelligence on the 
best authority : and that it would be very unwise 
to neglect taking every possible precaution for 
their safety. He therefore recommended them to 
strengthen and repair the defences of the city, to 
procure assistance from the native tribes, and to 
send embassies to the other Greek towns, both in 
Sicily and Italy, to prevent them from joining with 
the Athenians. He also urged that no time should 
be lost in dispatching ambassadors to Sparta and 



208 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Corinth, urging those states to renew the war with 
Athens. The advice of Hermocrates was at first 
listented to with doubt and hesitation. It was sup- 
posed that he had some secret reasons for en- 
deavouring to frighten the people ; but the next 
information which reached Syracuse proved the 
truth of his words, and the inhabitants then set 
themselves vigorously to work to defend their city 
from the expected attack. 

The Athenian fleet, in the meantime, had sailed 
to Corcyra, where it was joined by the vessels and 
forces of the states and cities in alliance with 
Athens. From thence all proceeded along the coast 
of Italy, hoping that the inhabitants of the Greek 
colonies in that country would join them. But 
this hope was vain. Not one of the cities would 
open its gates to the troops ; and only one, Rhe- 
gium, — the inhabitants of which had always before 
been friendly to Athens, — gave them the oppor- 
tunity of buying provisions. Even there, the sol- 
diers were kept without the walls, whilst the market 
was brought to them ; and the people seemed 
quite disinclined in any way to assist the expedi- 
tion. 

This disappointment was severely felt by the 
Athenians, but there was a still greater vexation in 
store for them. One of their chief inducements 
to begin a war with Syracuse was the hope of the 
wealth they should gain from it, and the idea that 
their Sicilian allies would be both able and willing 
to bear a large share of the expense. They had 
even sent envoys to Segesta, the city which begged 
for their alliance, to inquire into the amount of its 
treasures : and these envoys brought back wonder- 
ful reports of the wealth of the citizens, and the 
quantity of gold and silver plate which they had 
seen on the sideboards of the chief persons who en- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 209 

tertained them. But now, when the Athenians dis- 
patched messengers from Rhegium, where they 
were stationed, to Segesta, to concert plans for their 
further proceedings, and to bring back word how 
much the Segestans could contribute towards the 
expenses of the war, it was discovered that all the 
wealth they were supposed to possess was a delu- 
sion. The gold and silver plate, which had been 
so much admired and coveted, had been borrowed 
from some neighbouring cities, and lent in turn to 
the different citizens who gave entertainments ; and 
the sum which the Segestans were really able to 
give was a mere trifle in comparison with that which 
was expected from them. 

The sudden end of such dazzling expectations 
exceedingly depressed the spirits of x the Athenian 
generals, — though it surprised Nicias much less 
than it did his colleagues. Consultations were imme- 
diately held as to what ought to be done, and Nicias 
gave his advice, as usual, very prudently. " It 
would be desirable," he said, " that they should call 
upon the Segestans to supply payment for as many 
ships as they had asked for, and they might after- 
wards sail to Selinus, the city at enmity with Se- 
gesta, and compel the people to come to some agree- 
ment with the Segestans. The Athenians would 
then have done as much as they had offered ; and 
he should recommend that, after coasting along the 
island of Sicily, to show the strength of their fleet, 
they should all return home, and not put the state 
to any more cost or risk." 

It was not to be supposed that this very cautious 
advice could be approved by the other generals. 
Lamachus wished to make an immediate attack on 
Syracuse ; and Alcibiades declared it would be dis- 
graceful to retire without having done more with 
their great armament, and proposed a scheme for 



210 HISTORY OF GREECE, 

winning over the Sicilian towns to their side, and 
then attacking Selinus and Syracuse. This plan 
was adopted, — for it suited Lamachus much better 
than the prudent advice of Nicias ; and as he could 
not have his own way, he thought it better to agree 
to that which came the nearest to it. 

Sixty vessels accordingly were sent over to Sicily, 
under the command of Alcibiades and Lamachus, 
to hold communications with the several towns 
which, it might be supposed, would be favourable to 
the Athenians. The rest remained at Rhegium. 
The success of Alcibiades and his colleague was 
not quite what they had hoped for. In one or two 
places they found friends, but into others they were 
not allowed to enter ; and before they could return 
to Rhegium, an event happened which entirely al- 
tered their plans. 

The enemies of Alcibiades had worked unceas- 
ingly to injure him since he left Greece. They 
had encouraged all who chose to bring information 
against him ; and the accusations being of a serious 
nature, a state galley was sent to Sicily, with orders 
to convey him and several other persons who were 
serving with the army, to Athens, to take their 
trial on the charge of profanation and irreverence 
to the gods. What was strictly meant by these 
charges it is not very easy to discover, for the peo- 
ple of Athens had worked themselves up into such 
a pitch of anger and suspicion, that they had mixed 
up with it all kinds of accusations. But that which 
they mostly appear to have imagined was, that the 
mutilation of the busts of Hermes had some con- 
nection with a plot against the government and the 
liberty of the people. The assertions made were 
very vague, and some must have been false. One 
man declared that he knew quite well who the per- 
sons were that had mutilated the busts, for that on 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 211 

the same night on which the offence was committed 
he happened to be in a street by the theatre, and as 
he was standing behind a pillar, he saw nearly three 
hundred persons enter the place where the musicians 
usually sat, and remain there for a time, fifteen or 
twenty together. " There was a full moon," he 
said, " and it shone full upon their faces, so that he 
was able to observe the features of almost all. He 
did not know at the time what they were met for, 
but when he heard the next day of the injury done 
to the busts of Hermes, he was sure they must be 
the guilty persons ; and since then some of them 
had given him money to say nothing about it." It 
happened that on the night on which this man pro- 
fessed to have seen three hundred persons by the 
light of the full moon, there was no moon visible. 
His account, therefore, must have been untrue ; but 
no one thought of remarking this, or, in consequence, 
stopping the accusations that were going on. The 
people listened eagerly to all that was told them ;„ 
and the general belief was that a great conspiracy 
had been formed to upset the government, in which 
Alcibiades also was concerned ; and a decree was 
therefore passed to recall him. 

He was not made a prisoner, — for that, it was 
feared, would excite the anger of his troops. He 
was only ordered to return to Athens in the ship 
which had been sent for him, and this he did not 
refuse to do. But Alcibiades had no honourable 
principles, to guide him under such circumstances. 
He was willing to serve his country, as long as it 
suited his own purposes, but when his country turn- 
ed against him, he saw no harm in revenge. The 
ship in which he sailed delayed off the coast of 
Italy, and he and his companions landed, hid them- 
selves till it had sailed again, and then crossed in a 
merchant vessel to Peloponnesus ; from whence Ah 



212 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

cibiades proceeded to Sparta, to join himself with 
the enemies of his native city, and devote his talents 
and his energy to the injury of Athens. When his 
escape was made known at Athens he was sentenced 
to death, his property was given to the state, and 
the priest and priestesses were ordered to curse 
him, according to an ancient custom, with their 
faces turned to the west, and waving red banners in 
the air. 

Alcibiades being gone, Nicias had less difficulty 
in persuading Lamachus to agree to his plans for 
carrying on the war ; for Lamachus held him in 
great respect, and was willing to submit to his 
authority. 

But Nicias had now given up the idea of ending 
the war quickly, and after sailing to two or three 
places in order to find out what help might really 
be expected from the people of the island, he pre- 
pared to besiege Syracuse. 

The fears of the Syracusans were much lessened 
by this time; and even when the Athenians en- 
camped round their city, the Syracusan horsemen 
were so bold, that they used to ride up to their 
camp and ask what they were come for. A battle, 
however, that soon afterwards took place, in which 
they were defeated, changed their ideas, and they 
began to perceive that it would be necessary to 
exert themselves vigorously. 

The winter was now coming on, and the war 
was as usual suspended. The Athenians moved 
away from Syracuse to the island of Naxos, and 
sent a vessel to Athens to ask for a supply of mo- 
ney, and troops of cavalry ; and the Syracusans, 
by the advice of Hermocrates, took measures to 
fortify their town, and sent ambassadors to obtain 
assistance from Corinth and Sparta. 

The petition of the Syracusans was strength- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 213 

ened by the advice of Alcibiades, who did not fail to 
use the utmost efforts to persuade the Spartans to 
join in the war. The very arguments which he 
had brought forward at Athens to induce his fellow- 
citizens to begin the Sicilian expedition, he now 
turned into what might be called accusations against 
them. " The invasion of Sicily," he said, iC was but 
the beginning of the ambitious designs of the Athe- 
nians. When they had conquered that island, they 
would turn their arms against the Greeks in Italy, 
and would afterwards attack Carthage ; and in the 
end Peloponnesus would be invaded, and the whole 
of Greece made subject to them. No time there- 
fore was to be lost in sending a body of troops to 
Sicily, but especially a Spartan commander to di- 
rect them." He also advised that Attica should 
be invaded., so that the Athenian forces might be 
engaged at the same time both at home and abroad. 

The Spartan government had before this plan- 
ned the invasion of Attica, and now they began to 
see that it might be well to hasten their movements, 
G-ylippus, one of their chief generals, was also order- 
ed to sail to Sicily, with as many ships and men as 
he could raise immediately. Some Corinthian 
forces were also to accompany him ; and a fur- 
ther supply of troops was to be sent as soon as 
possible. 

When the spring returned, Syracuse was again 
besieged. The inhabitants had worked well at the 
fortifications during the winter, but they had neg- 
lected one very important hill called Epipohe, or, 
as we should say, " Overton," or " Overtown," from 
its overlooking the town. This omission they dis- 
covered before the siege was actually renewed ; but 
whilst they were preparing to guard the hill, the 
Athenians, who were more quicksighted and expe- 
ditious, perceived what a good place it would be for 



214 HISTOE,Y OF GREECE. 

their camp, and by mounting to the top at full speed 
took possession of it for themselves. 

The possession of this hill gave them a great 
advantage ; and their first attacks against the Syra- 
eusans were so successful, that many of the Sicels, 
or natives, were induced to take part with them. 
Provisions also arrived from several places, so that 
they were full of confidence, whilst the spirits of 
the poor people in the besieged city sank, and their 
hopes grew less and less. As is often the case with 
persons in difficulty, they became unjust, and caused 
Hermocrates and two other generals to be thrown 
into prison, fancying that they were the cause of 
their misfortunes ; and they were just beginning to 
think of making peace with the Athenians, when 
fresh vigour was given them by the happy intelli- 
gence that G-ylippus and the Spartans had landed 
in the island, and were marching to their assistance. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

CONCLUSION OF THE SICILIAN WAR. 
b. c. 413. 

The inhabitants of Syracuse assembled in arms, 
and went forth to meet G-ylippus when he drew 
near the city, and to welcome him as their deliverer. 
And they had indeed great reason to rejoice. From 
the moment of his arrival, the whole prospect of 
their affairs was changed. His vigour and talents 
gave them confidence ; and though Nicias opposed 
him bravely, it was soon evident that the position 
of the Athenians was becoming very dangerous. 
The possession of the hill of Epipoke had been their 
greatest advantage, as it had enabled them to begin 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 215 

building a wall round the city ; but G-ylippus con- 
trived to stop this work, by building another wall 
which interfered with it ; and then Nicias saw that 
he could not carry out his first plans, and thought 
it would be better to remove his army to the oppo- 
site side of the harbour. 

The Syracusans at the same time began to man 
tiieir fleet, so that they might be able to resist their 
enemies at sea, where the Athenians were generally 
victorious ; and all these circumstances united made 
Nicias think so badly of his own prospects, that he 
wrote letters to the people of Athens to be read in 
the Assembly, describing his distress and dangers. 
Before this he had only sent messages by word of 
mouth, for letters were not written every day then 
as they are now. " The Syracusans," he said, '* still 
expected more succours, and would soon attack him 
both by land and sea. His ships and their crews 
were no longer in a flourishing state; the ships, 
having been so long at sea, were growing leaky, 
and the number of the men was much diminished. 
It would be quite necessary, therefore, to send 
more forces and more money ; and he must also 
beg for a new commander to take his place, as he 
was suffering from a very painful disorder, and was 
really unfit to bear the burthen of his office. If 
these suggestions were not agreed to, the army must 
be recalled ; but whatever they might resolve, some- 
thing must be done as soon as the spring came." 
This was very gloomy news for the Athenians to 
receive, but it did not overcome their proud spirit. 
A new armament, under the command of *Demos- 
thenes (the same who had distinguished himself at 
Pylos), and another general named Eurymedon, 
was made ready and sent forth, as Nicias had de- 
sired, early in the spring. They would not consent 
that Nicias should give up the command, but it 



216 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

was hoped that Demosthenes would be a great as- 
sistance to him. These fresh forces were collected 
at the time when the Spartans, following the advice 
of Alcibiades, had invaded Attica, and approached 
so near Athens, that it was quite like a besieged 
city. Money was becoming every day more scarce, 
provisions were only to be obtained with difficulty, 
and it seems quite wonderful that they should in 
any way have been able to carry on a distant war. 

Gylippus had not been idle whilst Nicias was 
sending for help from Athens. He had collected 
allies from the people of Sicily, and sent envoys to 
procure more forces from Sparta and Corinth ; and 
when Demosthenes set sail from Athens, he was 
just about to attack the Athenians at Syracuse 
with increased vigour. 

His great object was to persuade the Syracusans 
to man their ships, and engage in a sea-fight. If 
they were successful there, he knew that it would 
give them great confidence, and very much alarm 
the Athenians, who fancied that by sea they were 
invincible. 

The Syracusans were not very easily persuaded, 
but they did consent at last, and several sea-fights 
took place, in which the Athenians were by no 
means as victorious as they had expected to be, 
though they cannot exactly be said to have been 
defeated. 

The hopes of the Syracusans were now much 
raised, and they were looking forward to a com- 
plete triumph both by sea and land, when the 
Athenian fleet, commanded by Demosthenes, sailed 
proudly into the great harbour to the sound of 
martial music. Eight thousand men were on board, 
all gallantly equipped and ready for battle. 

The astonishment and dismay of the Syracusans 
were excessive. Athens } they knew, was suffering 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 217 

from the invading army of the Spartans ; how, then^ 
eould such a force have been spared % 

Their terrors, however, were greater than the 
hopes of the Athenians at the arrival of the fleet ; 
for when Demosthenes began to enquire into the 
state of affairs, he perceived that it was exceedingly 
doubtful whether even now Syracuse could be taken. 
One thing was certain, that Nicias ought to have 
attacked the Syracusans, and thoroughly frightened 
them, before they had time to call in the help of 
their friends. His slow measures had been the 
cause of great evil, and all that Demosthenes could 
now do was to reattempt some great thing at once. 
He therefore proposed that they should try to re- 
cover possession of Epipohe, so that they might be 
able to complete the wall round the town. 

There seemed no chance of being able to ascend 
the hill in the daytime, as it was closely watched 
by the enemy's troops. It was determined, there- 
fore, to make the attempt by night. The soldiers 
were told to provide themselves with food enough 
for five days, and the masons and carpenters were 
to be in readiness with their tools ; in short, every 
necessary preparation was made for taking posses- 
sion of the hill, and afterwards building the wall. 

Nicias, being very infirm from illness, was to re- 
main in the camp ; but in the dead of the night the 
other generals set forth. The first attack they 
made succeeded, and they reached the cross wall 
which had been built by the Syracusans, and began 
to pull it down. By that time Gylippus and some 
of the Syracusan troops had sallied forth against 
them, and the Athenians, who were pressing for- 
ward hastily, were thrown into confusion. There 
was a bright moonlight, but it served rather to per- 
plex than to help them, for it was not strong enough 
to enable them clearly to distinguish their friends 
19 



218 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

from their foes. The space in which they were all 
fighting was very narrow, and the noise of the bat- 
tle prevented any questions and answers being heard. 
The Spartans and Syracusans also found out the 
particular password which the Athenians used, 
when they wanted to know each other, and managed 
to perplex them very much by repeating it them- 
selves ; whilst some of the Athenian allies, being of 
the same race as the Spartans, were accustomed to 
the same war cry, which sounded to the Athenians 
like that of their enemies. All these circumstances 
caused such excessive confusion, that no one scarce- 
ly knew whom he was fighting with, or what he 
ought to do ; and several times the Athenians, by 
mistake, fought with each other. The Athenians 
at length were driven back towards a narrow way 
by which they had ascended the hill ; and as there 
was not space enough in it for them all, many were 
forced over a cliff at the side, and dashed to pieces. 
Between two and three thousand are said to have 
perished on this night ; and so great a loss entirely 
destroyed their hopes of finally taking Syracuse. 

When a council was held after the battle to set- 
tle what was to be clone, Demosthenes gave his 
opinion most strongly and decidedly for a retreat. 
" Sickness was spreading," he said, " amongst the 
men ; and if they did not at once return to Attica, 
where they might be really useful to their country, 
he feared that the Spartans and Syracusans would 
attack their fleet, and so completely ruin them." 

To the surprise of every one, Nicias was the 
only person who rather differed from this opinion. 
He had been secretly told that there were persons 
in Syracuse who were friendly to the Athenians ; 
and though he did not very much depend upon 
them, yet this knowledge made him more hopeful 
than the other generals. Demosthenes then begged 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 219 

that at least they might all remove to Catana, one 
of the Sicilian cities in alliance with Athens, which 
was much more healthy at that time than Syra- 
cuse ; but Nicias was so bent upon remaining where 
they were, that every one at last gave way to him. 

It was a most unfortunate resolution ; and verj; 
shortly afterwards Nicias himself saw what a mis- 
take he had made. The Syracusans received fresh 
succours from their allies, and from Peloponnesus, 
and made ready to renew their attacks both by sea 
and land. Then Nicias agreed that it would be 
well to retreat. With the utmost secrecy the Athe- 
nians carried on their preparations for departure. 
Every thing seemed to favour them, and the hour 
was fixed for the troops to en>bark. Just as it was 
near, an eclipse of the moon took place. The Athe- 
nians, knowing little or nothing of the cause of 
such an appearance, considered it an evil omen ; 
and Nicias especially, always full of superstition, 
after consulting with the soothsayers who accom- 
panied the army, expressed his fixed determination 
to remain where he then was till the next full 
moon. 

That determination completed the ruin of the 
unhappy Athenians. The Syracusans found out 
that it was their intention to retreat, and resolved 
to force them to a battle before they went. A sea 
fight took place, in which, although the Syracusans 
were at last routed, the Athenians lost eighteen 
ships with their crews, together with their general 
Eurymedon ; and being then perfectly in despair, 
they had but one hope left, which was to force their 
way through the enemy's fleet out of the harbour, 
and, if possible, sail to Catana. In case this 
scheme failed, they were to burn their ships, and 
make their way over land to some part of the island 
which was friendly to them. The object of the 



220 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Athenian commanders on this occasion was to make 
the battle as much like a land-fight as possible ; for 
the ships were crowded into such a small space that 
there was no room, whilst they were in the harbour, 
to turn and manage them as they were accustomed 
to do in the open sea, Grappling-irons, or iron 
hands, were therefore contrived by which they 
might seize the enemy's ships, and keep them close 
till they were taken. These and many other pre- 
cautions, required by the great danger they were 
in, were carefully attended to ; and when the men 
were about to embark, Nicias called them together 
to address them for the last time, and rouse them 
to courage in the approaching conflict. 

All the motives which could make them either 
hope or fear were earnestly put before them. He 
spoke to them of their country, and reminded them 
that they were now on the eve of a battle which 
would decide whether or not they should ever see 
it again. " Their past misfortunes," he said, " were 
no reasonable ground for despondency, and their 
forces were still sufficient to encourage reasonable 
hopes. It only remained for all on board to do 
their duty. They must conquer. If they did not, 
their enemies would follow them to Attica, and the 
commonwealth of Athens would sink under their 
power. It was an occasion, therefore, worthy of 
every effort of skill and valour. Not one fleet, and 
one army, but the whole power, and the last hopes, 
and the great name of Athens were at stake, and in 
their hands." 

The Syracusans, on their part, were no less care- 
ful than the Athenians. They had discovered the 
use which was to be made of the iron hands, and 
formed a plan for avoiding the mischief by stretch- 
ing a screen of hides over the sterns of their ves- 
sels, so that the grappling-irons might not be able 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 221 

to get hold of them. The commanders also ad« 
dressed their men, and cheered them with the 
prospect of a complete victory, and the hope of 
revenging themselves for all they had suffered ; 
and in this state of excited, eager feeling on both 
sides, the battle began. 

Demosthenes took the command of the Athenian 
fleet, and Nicias remained on shore with a body 
of troops to guard the camp, in case of the battle 
being lost. But he could not station himself at 
his post without once more summoning round him 
the captains of the vessels, addressing each by his 
name, and exhorting them to courage yet more 
earnestly, as he spoke to them of their wives and 
children, their hearths and altars, all that they 
held dear and sacred, which was now either to be 
lost or saved. 

The Athenians began the battle by a violent 
attack on the bar, at the entrance of the harbour, 
the great obstacle to their escape, which was guarded 
by some of the Syracusan ships. Their efforts were 
so great that they overpowered their enemies, and 
nearly succeeded in breaking the fastenings of the 
bar. But they were interrupted by the sudden 
approach of the whole Syracusan fleet, and the 
battle then raged on all sides. 

The difficulty of moving in the narrow space 
within the harbour, — the mingling of friends and 
foes, — the din of sounds, which drowned the voices 
of the commanders, — caused a scene of disorder be- 
yond all that can be imagined. The Athenians, both 
men and officers, fought desperately, each one as if 
the event of the battle depended solely on his own 
exertions ; and all urging one another to force the 
outlet by which they were to find a passage to their 
homes. The general tumult was increased by the 
voices of those who stood upon the shore and 



222 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

watched the battle. As their friends or their foes 
appeared victorious, the air rang with shouts of joy 
or cries of terror. But at last all doubts were ended. 
The Athenians were seen pursued by their enemies, 
and making their way to the shore ; and one fear- 
ful wail of agony from their comrades on land, told 
that all was lost. 

That was the last battle between the Athenians 
and the Syracusans. The Syracusans sailed back 
to the city, and raised a trophy of triumph ; and 
the Athenians, forgetting even to send a herald to 
recover the dead bodies of their countrymen, in 
order that they might be buried, — a duty which 
was quite sacred in the eyes of the Greeks, — • 
turned all their thoughts to an immediate retreat 
by land. They did not, however, set out at once, 
for the Syracusans sent false messages to them, 
bidding them beware of marching at night; and so 
induced them to delay, in order that they might 
themselves go before them and block up the passes. 

It was not till the third day after the battle 
that the retreat of the Athenians began ; and very 
sad it must have been. To look upon the bodies 
of their friends, which it then struck them as im- 
piety to leave unburied, was a heavy trial ; but 
there was another yet greater, — the parting from 
the sick and the wounded. There were few, indeed, 
who could restrain their tears, as they heard these 
unhappy men entreating to be taken, and saw them 
drag themselves feebly along after the army, and 
then drop down from fatigue, with cries of bitter 
grief. Slany probably recalled, with mournful 
thoughts, the triumphant pride with which they 
had set forth from Athens, — the glittering arms, 
the wondering crowds, the solemn prayer, and the 
glad song of triumph, now exchanged for shame, 
and suffering, and fear. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 223 

Nicias, though almost overcome by pain of body 
and anguish of mind, did his very utmost to cheer 
his troops. He walked along the lines, speaking 
loudly that all might hear him. and exhorting them 
not to give way to despondency. " He, himself, 
was not," he said, " conscious of any offence against 
the gods, or against his fellow-creatures, yet he 
was suffering equally with themselves. But he con- 
fidently expected deliverance, for he had not de- 
served punishment ; and, in like manner, they might 
hope that the misfortunes they had already endured 
had been sufficient to satisfy the envy and to move 
the pity of the gods, and that their affairs would 
soon take a favourable turn. Let them once reach 
the part of the island which was peopled by their 
friends, and they would be safe, and might look 
forward to a return to their homes, and a joyful 
meeting with their families." 

This speech no doubt was an encouragement to 
the Athenians, though it would have been very little 
comfort to Christians to hear their misfortunes 
spoken of as caused by the envy of the gods. 
Nothing indeed sounds more dreary and hopeless 
to us than the consolations with which the heathens 
of old endeavoured to support themselves under 
calamity. They had great notions of the power of 
their deities, but of the Love of the One True God 
they had never heard. 

The army was now formed into a hollow square, 
with the baggage and the persons belonging to the 
camp, who were not soldiers, m the middle. They 
were only able to march five miles the first day, 
being stopped by parties of Syracusans who fol- 
lowed them. The next day they only went half 
the distance, as they waited in a little plain to col- 
lect provisions and lay in a supply of water. So 
they advanced with great difficulty, — Gylippus and 



224 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the Syraeusans blocking up their way, and prevent 
ing them from procuring sufficient food. 

The Athenian generals soon saw that their only 
hope of safety was to march by night ; and they 
lighted fires in the camp to deceive the enemy, and 
then again set forward. But in this night march 
Nicias and Demosthenes were unfortunately sepa- 
rated : and whilst Nicias led on his troops in good 
order, Demosthenes followed with his, less regularly, 
at a distance behind. The Syraeusans pursued, 
and the next morning came up with Demosthenes 
before noon. The Athenians were surrounded, and 
driven into an olive ground, enclosed by a wall, 
with a road running along the high ground above 
it, from which they could easily be attacked. Here, 
finding the strength of his soldiers utterly exhausted,. 
Demosthenes humbled himself to submit. Six 
thousand men laid down their arms on the express 
condition that they were to be saved from any vio- 
lent death, whether by bloodshed, chains, or hunger. 

Nicias was overtaken the next day, and told 
that Demosthenes had surrendered. He refused 
at first to believe the fact ; but, when he found 
that it was actually true, he endeavoured to make 
terms with the Syraeusans, and sent a message to 
them to propose that Athens should pay all the ex- 
penses of the war, if they might be allowed to re- 
treat. The Syraeusans refused the offer, and still 
followed. The Athenians moved on till the next 
morning, when, reaching the banks of a little 
stream, they rushed forward to quench the raging 
thirst from which they were suffering. In their 
eagerness they fell one upon another, and numbers 
were trampled under foot and suffocated. The 
Syraeusans threw themselves upon them ; but they 
still struggled, not to escape from death, but to 
snatch from each other a draught of the tainted 



HISTOR,Y OF GREECE. 225 

water. Then, at last, Nicias surrendered, making 
no terms with G-ylippus, except that the slaughter 
of his unfortunate men should be stopped. 

Neither Nicias nor Demosthenes made any 
agreement as to their own fate. Gylippus would 
willingly have carried them back with him to 
Sparta as proofs of his victory, but he could not 
follow his own wishes. The Syracusans urged that 
they should be condemned to death, and the sen- 
tence was passed and executed. The fate of Nicias 
is one of the saddest to be met with in the history 
of Greece, or perhaps of any other country. He 
had talent, prudence, wealth, honour, and amiabil- 
ity ; and it seems that he ought to have been of the 
utmost service to his country. But his timidity 
and superstition interfered with these advantages, 
and in the end brought ruin upon himself and upon 
his native land. The miseries endured by the 
prisoners were, however, enough to make us pity 
them even more than Nicias and Demosthenes. 

A considerable number contrived to escape, but 
those who were kept were placed in a dreadful 
prison, which was, in fact, a quarry hollowed in the 
side of the hill Epipolas. It was a hundred feet in 
depth, and the rock was so steep that there was not 
the slightest possibility of escape. Here they were 
exposed to the scorching rays of the sun by day^ 
and the chilly, damp air by night. So little food 
was given them that they could scarcely be kept 
alive, and the thirst they suffered was more terrible 
than can be described. The greater number were 
after some weeks sold as slaves. Some, it is said, 
gained their freedom, or induced their enemies to 
show them favour, by repeating the verses of the 
poet Euripides, which so charmed the Sicilians, 
that, for the sake of the poet, they were willing to 
be kind to his unhappy fellow-countrymen. 



226 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE RETURN OF ALCIBIADES. 

3. c. 407. 

Whilst all these terrible events were happening in 
Sicily, the Athenians were managing their affairs 
at home without any suspicion of the greatness of 
the misfortune which had befallen them. One 
morning, however, a stranger landed in Piraeus, and 
going to a barber's shop to be shaved, began to talk 
about the Sicilian expedition, and mentioned the 
loss of the Athenians, as if it were a fact which 
every one must know. The barber hastened di- 
rectly to the archons, who brought him before an 
Assembly of the people to tell what he knew : but, 
as he could give no account of the person that had 
brought the information, he was considered as a 
false witness, and it is said that he was put to the 
torture as a punishment. The sad news was con- 
firmed soon afterwards by other persons who had 
escaped from Sicily ; yet it was long before the 
Athenians could really be brought to believe it. 
When, however, they were at last convinced of the 
fact, their regret for the past was only overpowered 
by their fears for the future. The victorious Spar- 
tans might, they knew, soon be expected to appear 
before the port of Piraeus, whilst their armies and 
those of their allies were at the same time carrying 
on the war in Greece. The Athenians had no 
money, no ships, no soldiers, — one might have sup- 
posed that their spirits must have sunk completely. 
But they did not. The peop^ seemed to have 
gained wisdom by their misfortunes. Without de- 
lay they chose certain persons of sense and discre- 
tion to advise what was to be done ; and then every 
man set to work to provide against the dangers 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 227 

which threatened them, by building new ships, 
saving as much money as possible, and taking other 
measures for safety. 

The Spartans, being a slow-moving, cautious 
people, did not follow up their success as quickly 
as the Athenians probably would have done under 
the same circumstances. Yet they had every thing 
in their favour. Even in Attica itself they had ob- 
tained a fixed settlement ; for they possessed a for- 
tress, called Decelea, so near to Athens that they 
could almost see from it the great public proces- 
sions of the Athenians on their festival days ; and 
from this fortress they could sally forth and annoy 
their enemies at any moment. What was still more 
important, they were every day gaining over to 
their cause the small states and islands which had 
formerly been subject to Athens ; and they had en- 
tered into a treaty with two great Persian satraps, 
or governors, who were wishing to weaken the power 
of Athens. Alcibiades was the chief adviser of the 
Spartans at this time ; and when the Athenians, 
having somewhat recovered their strength, began 
to revenge themselves upon their subjects and allies 
for having deserted them, he was a distinguished 
person in the numerous battles and sieges which 
took place. Alcibiades was not, however, liked by 
the Spartans. Agis, one of the kings, was his per- 
sonal enemy, and the people suspected him of 
treachery. This suspicion was not o^uite unfounded. 
Alcibiades had but one wish in going over to the 
Spartans, — that of humbling his own countrymen 
till they should be sorry for their conduct, and re- 
call him. He did not, therefore, wish to see the 
Spartans too powerful ; and when he found it prob- 
able that they might be so, he secretly gave counsel 
to the Persian governors not to help them too 
much ' saying, " that it would be much more advan- 



2!28 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

tageous for Persia to let Sparta and Athens quar« 
rel with, and so weaken each other." Having 
gained influence by this advice, he next sent secret 
envoys to Athens, who informed the people how in- 
timate he was withsthe Persian governor, and sug- 
gested to them that if they would recall him, and 
make such changes in the government as he might 
propose, he would jpersuade the powerful Persian 
nobles to take part with Athens rather than with 
Sparta. In this way Alcibiades worked for his own 
selfish purposes, and was treacherous to every one 
whenever it suited him. 

The Athenians were at first very unwilling to 
consent to the proposals of Alcibiades ; but Pisan- 
der, one of the envoys, persuaded them that the 
prosperity of the state entirely depended upon the 
support of the Persian king, and that no one 
would be able to obtain this support for them as 
well as Alcibiades ; and at last they consented that 
Pisander should enter into a treaty with Alcibiades, 
and find out through him what the king of Persia 
would require, if they were to enter into an alliance 
with that country. This treaty came to nothing, 
for the claims of the Persians were much greater 
than the Athenians would agree to : and it seemed 
as if an obstacle was now placed in the way of the 
return of Alcibiades to Athens. But the question 
as to the change of government was not, in conse- 
quence, set at rest, for Alcibiades was not the only 
Athenian who desired to see an alteration made in 
it. There were always some who wished for what 
is called an oligarchy — that is, the government of 
a few persons of rank and influence — instead of a 
democracy, or the government of the people : and 
now, although Alcibiades was absent, these persons 
joined together, and, by working secretly to bring 
over others to their notions, at length succeeded in 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 229 

their object ; and Four Hundred new rulers were 
appointed, who were to rule with absolute power. 
It was endeavoured, also, to make the same changes 
in the government of the island of Samos, where 
the Athenian fleet was then stationed, and which 
was subject to Athens ; but in that island, and 
amongst the soldiers and seamen, there were more 
persons in favour of the old form of government 
than the new. The disturbances caused by these 
two parties were very great, yet they proved ex- 
tremely useful to Alcibiades. Whether the gov- 
ernment of Athens was an oligarchy or a democracy 
was of much less consequence to him than his own 
return ; and, therefore, when the inhabitants of 
Samos, who favoured the old government, sent to 
him to beg that he would come to them and give 
them his advice and assistance, he immediately 
went. There was a great public meeting held at 
Samos to receive him ; and, as usual, he made a 
boastful, untrue speech, declaring that he had great 
influence with Tissaphernes, the chief Persian sa- 
trap inAsia Minor, and that Tissaphernes had told 
him that if he could only rely on the Athenians, 
they should not want pay for their seamen, — no, 
not if he should be forced to turn the furniture of 
his palace into money for them, — and that he would 
bring his fleet to help them, instead of the Spar- 
tans. All this was to be done, however, only if 
Alcibiades was recalled. 

The real truth was, that Tissaphernes was 
wavering between Sparta and Athens, — doing, in 
fact, what Alcibiades himself had recommended, — 
sometimes appearing to favour one, and sometimes 
the other. But the people of Samos believed all 
that they were told, and, having made Alcibiades 
their general, sent him to make a treaty with Tis* 
saphernes 

20 



230 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

In the meantime, the new rulers at Athena 
made themselves very much disliked by their se- 
verity, and people began to suspect them of hold- 
ing communications with the Spartans. The feel- 
ing excited against them increased every day, and 
there seemed a prospect of a civil war, when a new 
alarm was caused at Athens by the news that the 
Spartans had gained a victory by sea off the island 
of Euboea, which was subject to Athens, and that 
the people of Euboea had revolted. The conster- 
nation of the people at this intelligence was beyond 
description. With two parties hating each other 
at home, and an enemy gaining such triumphs over 
them abroad, the state seemed on the brink of ruin. 
Something, they saw, must instantly be done to 
restore peace amongst themselves ; and they imme- 
diately agreed to do away with their four hundred 
rulers, and to make the government more like what 
it was before, — though not so much of a democracy 
as it had been. The laws and regulations were not 
all settled then ; the principal alteration was the 
removal of the four hundred persons who were so 
much disliked. A decree was, however passed, — 
most important to Alcibiades, — that all exiles 
should be recalled ; and ambassadors were sent to 
the army at Samos, to tell the changes which had 
taken place, and to beg that the war with Sparta 
might be carried on vigorously. 

Alcibiades was now openly acknowledged as an 
Athenian general, but it was not till three years 
afterwards, b. c. 407, that he returned to Athens. 
During that time he served his country greatly, by 
defeating the Peloponnesians many times, both by 
sea and land. On one occasion he was so entirely 
victorious, that one of the Spartan officers gave 
the following short account of the sad situation of 
himself and his men : " Our good luck is gone ; 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 231 

Mindarus, the general, is dead, the men are starv- 
ing, and we know not what to do.' 7 This may well 
be called a Laconic epistle. The Lacedaemonians, 
or people of Laconia, were celebrated for their 
short way of expressing themselves, and our word 
laconic, or short, is derived from them. 

In one point, however, Alcibiades failed. He 
was not able to bring over the Persians to the 
Athenian cause. Though he offered presents to 
the Persian satrap, whom he called his friend, and 
tried to make the Spartans suspicion of him, and 
by that means to cause a quarrel, yet he never suc- 
ceeded in really destroying the alliance between 
Persia and Sparta. Still, he was entirely restored 
to the favour of his countrymen, and when, after all 
his victories, he returned to Athens, it was as a 
conqueror, and not as an exile. As he sailed into 
the port of Piraeus, with the ships he had taken, 
laden with prisoners and stored with treasures, the 
crowds which nocked to the shore to receive him 
were almost as many as those which had assembled 
to witness his departure for Sicily. Every eye 
was turned upon him, and the greater number of 
those present were willing to forget his faults, and 
to consider him merely as an injured person, who 
had been punished from the malice of his enemies. 
They followed him with shouts of joy, showering 
garlands of flowers upon his head, as he proceeded 
from Piraeus to the city ; there to present himself 
before the public Assembly; and a speech which he 
then made, asserting his innocence, and bewailing 
his misfortunes, touched every heart. Not one of 
his enemies dared to raise a voice against him; the 
priests were ordered to recant their curses ; his 
property was restored ; a golden crown was decreed 
to him; the records of the accusations against him 
were thrown into the sea, and he was appointed 



232 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

commander-in-cliief of all the armies of the state 4 
both by sea and land. 

Alcibiades was now in the position which he had 
so long and earnestly desired; and his first act was 
a wise one, for it was an endeavour to show his 
respect for religion. In former days there had been 
at stated periods a solemn procession from Athens 
to Eleusis, where the sacred rites were performed, 
which Alcibiades was said to have profaned. Since 
the Spartans had obtained possession of the fortress 
of Decelea, this procession had been given up, from 
the fear of surprise and interruption from the ene- 
my. Alcibiades now undertook to restore the pro- 
cession, and to perform all the ancient ceremonies ; 
and, having taken every precaution against danger, 
he, with a body of soldiers, escorted the priests and 
their attendants to Eleusis, and thus enabled them 
to return to all their ancient customs. The Spar- 
tan commander at Decelea was either not strong 
enough to interrupt them, or, probably, he felt it 
would be irreligious to do so ; and Alcibiades, hav- 
ing done what was so well-pleasing to his fellow- 
citizens, rose even higher in their favour than 
before. 



CHAPTER XXVII, 

THE BATTLE OF ARGINUS^], AND THE UNJUST SEN- 
TENCE AGAINST THE ATHENIAN GENERALS. 



When the Spartans found that Alcibiades was re- 
stored to his country, they felt that it would be 
necessary to take some vigorous measures for carry- 
ing on the war ; and especially to fix upon a gen- 
eral who might be fitted to oppose him. The per* 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 233 

son they appointed was Lysander, a man not very 
unlike Aleibiades, for he was clever and agreeable 
in manner, but wanting in real truth and honesty 
of purpose. There was another cause also which 
made the Spartans particularly anxious to have a 
clever commander just at this time. The Persian 
king, Darius, had sent one of his younger sons, 
named Cyrus, to help the Lacedaemonians in the 
war, and to govern all the country on the sea-coast 
of Asia Minor. But the Spartans were rather 
afraid that Tissaphernes, the satrap who had once 
"been the friend of Alcibiades, would try to injure 
their cause with the young prince, for he was never 
heartily an ally of the Spartans, although he had 
not actually broken off the alliance with them. It 
was necessary, therefore, that the Spartans should 
have some clever person to keep up the friendship 
of Cyrus, and there was no one more likely to do 
this than Lysander. He was accordingly sent to 
the coast of Asia Minor, with the Spartan fleet, and 
from thence he proceeded to Sardis, where Cyrus was. 
The young prince received him most graciously, 
promising, according to the eastern mode of speak- 
ing, that sooner than he would allow the Spartans 
to want money, he would melt down the precious 
metals which ornamented his throne. Lysander 
was encouraged by this to beg that some additional 
pay might be given to the men that served in the 
war, as he thought that the crews of the Athenian 
vessels would be induced to desert to them, if they 
had hope of higher pay. Cyrus replied " that ho 
was bound by the king's orders, and that it was set- 
tled by treaty how much money should be given to 
the Lacedaemonians to assist them in keeping up 
their fleet, so that it was not in his power to grant 
Lysander's request." Lysander, of course, could 
say no more at that moment. But there was a 



234 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

great entertainment given by Cyrus tho same daj 
to the Spartan ambassadors, and before the banquet 
was finished, Cyrus, who was much pleased with 
Lysander, gave the cup, out of which he had been 
drinking, into his hands, according to the Greek 
custom of showing hospitality and kindness, and 
begged Lysander to tell him what he could do to 
oblige him. Lysander seized the opportunity to 
repeat his request, and this time it was granted. 
The seamen received additional pay, and money was 
given by Cyrus besides, which was of the greatest 
service to the Spartans. 

Alcibiades on his part took care to increase the 
Athenian fleet, and to keep a watch upon his ene- 
mies; but now, when he had obtained the great 
object of his wishes, success seemed to forsake him. 
The Athenians were defeated in several engage- 
ments, and the people, who were always changeable, 
laid the blame on Alcibiades. It was said that he 
gave up the guidance of the war to persons who 
were not able to manage it, and that he himself 
only thought of pleasure and self-indulgence ; and 
these charges were probably not altogether false, 
for he was always bent upon gratifying himself, as 
well as serving his country. He was removed from 
his command, and instead of returning to Athens 
sailed away to the Chersonesus, where he had built 
himself a stronghold to which he might retire in 
case of necessity, for no doubt he was long before 
aware that his favour with the Athenians was not 
likely to last. 

Conon was the name of the general who suc- 
ceeded Alcibiades, and nine colleagues were joined 
with him, who became celebrated on account of a 
most severe and unjust sentence, which was passed 
upon several of them in the following year. But 
before we speak of this, we must go back to Lysan* 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 235 

der, who still remained with the Spartan fleet off 
the coast of Asia Minor. Being a very selfish and 
ambitious man, he cared little for his country's 
glory, except so far as it might increase his own ; 
and just then his thoughts were less turned to the 
carrying on of the war than to the formation of a 
league with some of the principal men in the Greek 
cities in Asia, by which they might assist each other 
in destroying Athens, and then gain absolute power 
for themselves. He was full of these schemes when 
the time for which he held his command came to 
an end, and another commander, Caliicratidas, was 
sent to take his place. Caliicratidas was as unlike 
Lysander as possible. He was brave, honourable, 
and unselfish, earnestly desirous of his country's 
good, and hating every thing like deceit. Lysander 
disliked him extremely, and did all he could to 
tease and dishearten him. He sent back to Cyrus 
the money which the Persian prince had granted 
him, and so left Caliicratidas without any, and he 
also instructed his allies to withhold their help from 
the new general. Caliicratidas suffered a great 
deal of inconvenience in consequence of Lysander's 
selfishness, and was obliged to make a journey to 
Sardis ; to see Cyrus, and ask for the money he 
wanted. Cyrus kept him there some days without 
giving him an audience. Whenever he called at 
the palace he was told to wait till the next day, and 
when he came again he was put off till the day 
after. One day when he went there, a banquet was 
going on, and he was informed that Cyrus was 
drinking. u I will wait till he has finished his 
draught," said Caliicratidas ; but although he did 
Wait, he was not treated any better ; and at last, 
quite worn out, he went away bewailing the wretch- 
ed condition of the Greeks, who were obliged to 
humble themselves to the barbarians for the sake of 



236 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

money ; and declaring, that if he ever returned 
home safely, he would exert all his power to make 
peace with Athens. 

If Callicratidas had lived, the fate of both 
Athens and Sparta might have been very different 
from what it was. But he was killed the same year 
in which he undertook his command, in a great sea 
fight near the Arginusse, three small islands off the 
coast of iEolis, in Asia Minor. 

It is said that a soothsayer warned him before 
the battle that an evil omen had been observed, and 
that he would probably be slain. But Callicratidas 
would not be alarmed, and replied that " Sparta 
would suffer no hurt from his death ? but that he 
should be dishonoured by flight." 

The battle of Arginusse was the greatest that 
had, up to that time, been fought between the fleets 
of Athens and Sparta. The Athenians were com- 
pletely victorious, but they lost a great number of 
their men, and it was this loss that occasioned the 
harsh sentence, which has before been mention- 
ed, to be passed upon the generals. The Athenians 
were indeed delighted at the victory, and rewarded 
the slaves who had served in the battle most gene- 
rously ; but they said that many lives might have 
been saved if the generals had shown proper atten- 
tion to a number of poor men who had been left 
clinging to the Athenian vessels which had been dis- 
abled in the conflict ; and they complained bitterly 
of the dead having been left unburied. The fact 
was that after the battle the generals, thinking it 
right to pursue their enemies, sailed away from the 
Arginusse, leaving special directions with some of 
the inferior officers, to go to the wrecks and take 
care of the poor men. A storm came on, which 
prevented the officers from obeying the orders, and 
in consequence the unfortunate men perished, and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 237 

the dead were left unburied. Theramenes, one of 
the officers who had been told to attend to these 
duties, was the foremost in accusing the generals of 
having neglected them. Upon being brought to 
trial, the generals stated the facts just as they had 
occurred, and pleaded that if any person were to 
blame, it must be the officers and not the generals ; 
though they did not themselves see that there had 
been a fault in either, since they all would have 
done their duty if the storm had not prevented 
them. Several witnesses were called who proved 
that this statement was true, and the people seemed 
inclined to favour the generals ; but unfortunately 
the trial was not concluded on that day, because it 
was growing dark, and there was not light enough 
to see how many persons held up their hands for the 
generals, and how many against them. Some days 
passed before there was another Assembly of the 
people, and in that time Theramenes and the other 
enemies of the generals worked in every way possible 
to excite a feeling against them. When the Assembly 
met again, all those who had lost friends in the 
battle came forward to make an appeal against the 
generals. One man declared that he had been pre- 
served by clinging to a meal tub, and that his com- 
rades, whom he saw sinking near him, entreated 
him, if he lived, to tell the Athenians that their 
generals had left the brave defenders of their coun- 
try to perish. This caused a loud outcry, and the 
clamour of the people was so great that they would 
not listen to any thing said in defence of the unfor* 
tunate commanders. The magistrates gave way, all 
except one, the upright, fearless philosopher, Socra- 
tes, who protested that the way in which the trial 
Was carried on was illegal, and refused to join in it. 
But his one voice was of no avail against the shouts 
of the multitude. Eight of the generals who com- 



238 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

manded in the battle were condemned to death, and 
six, who were present, were immediately executed. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE BATTLE OP ^EGOS POTAMI. 
b. c. 405. 

This great national sin was followed by the ruin of 
Athens. The people, indeed, repented of their 
cruel haste, and when they found, as they soon did. 
that the accusations brought against the generals 
were false, they passed decrees against those who 
had urged their trials. But they could not restore 
the lives so unjustly taken, and neither did they 
succeed in punishing the false accusers, who all at 
that time escaped. Theramenes especially remain- 
ed a favourite with the people, though we shall find 
that the vengeance of Heaven did overtake him in 
the end. 

For some time after the battle of Arginusse the 
Athenian fleet was left without a rival. Early, 
however, in the summer of the next year Lysander 
was again appointed to command the Spartans. He 
did not take the title of admiral, as it was against 
the Spartan laws that the same person should hold 
that office twice ; but by his influence with Cyrus 
he obtained sufficient assistance to enable him to 
carry on the war with as much energy as ever. The 
battle which at last ended the long Peloponnesian 
war, is called the battle of iEgos Potami. It was 
fought near Sestos, in Asia Minor ; but it can 
scarcely be called a regular engagement, and it- 
would probably never have taken place if the Athe- 
nians had not been strangely negligent. Their fleet 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 239 

and that of the Spartans had both been sailing along 
the coast and chasing each other ; and the Athe- 
nians having landed at iEgos Potami, which was 
merely an open beach, proceeded at their leisure to 
Sestos to buy provisions. The Spartans watched 
them, but did not attempt to disturb them, and 
the Athenians, growing more careless, landed in the 
Bame manner another day, and wandered farther up 
the country. The fortified dwelling of Alcibiades 
was near this part of the coast, and from his tower 
he could see all that went on. Observing the false 
security of the Athenians, he came down to the sea- 
coast to give them warning, and advised them to 
remove their camp to Sestos, which was friendly to 
them. The Athenian commanders, however, would 
not listen to him, but bade him remember that they 
were the generals, and not he. So Alcibiades went 
back to his tower, and the Athenians continued to 
wander about the country at their will. On the 
fifth day, Lysander gave orders that the vessels 
which had been sent every day to watch the move- 
ments of the Athenians should, as soon as they saw 
them wandering over the country, return to the 
middle of the channel and hoist a shield. This was 
a signal for the whole Spartan fleet. They collect- 
ed for battle and attacked the Athenian fleet. Co- 
non alone, of six generals who were in command, 
saw the danger in time and escaped. The crews of 
the other vessels were too far off to be brought back, 
and the ships, being nearly empty, were easily taken. 
A body of Spartan troops also landed and pursued 
the Athenians who had gone on shore in every di- 
rection ; and the greater part were taken prisoners. 
As many as 3,000 were put to death in revenge for 
cruelties which had before been shown to the Spar- 
tans. 

Conon, as he sailed away, carried away with 



240 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

him, in token of his zeal for his country's cause, tha 
large sails of the enemy's fleet, which he found on a 
headland near. He then took refuge at Cyprus, 
whilst one vessel alone proceeded to Athens to bear 
the sad tidings of the country's ruin. 

The ill-omened ship reached Pirseus at night, 
but the fatal news spread rapidly ; and the streets 
of the city and the port were soon filled with anxious 
groups, whilst the air resounded with wailing and 
lamentations. None, it is said, went to rest on that 
night ; and much cause indeed there was to mourn. 
The fleet on which all their hopes had been placed, 
was destroyed, and they had no means of restoring 
it. Resistance was no longer in their power. They 
had but to prepare for the arrival of Lysander, and 
the horrors of a long siege. 

Lysander appeared, and Athens was blockaded, 
both by sea and land. Offers of peace were made, 
but they were rejected ; for one of the points on 
which Lysander mostly insisted was, that the Long 
Walls, built by Themistocles, between Athens and 
Pirasus, should be pulled down. The Long Walls 
were considered the great defence of the city; they 
had been erected when Athens was in the height 
of her triumph after the Persian war, and the 
Athenians could not consent to such a sacrifice. 
The siege continued, and famine began to be felt. 
Again the Athenians endeavoured to make terms, 
but they could obtain none better. The Long 
Walls, and the fortifications of Piraeus, were to be 
destroyed ; the ships, all but twelve, were to be 
given up ; and Athens was to follow whithersoever 
Sparta might lead. These were the demands of 
the haughty conquerors, and to these, at length, the 
Athenians submitted ; and Lysander sailed trium- 
phantly into the port of Piraaus. Joyful music 
sounded, and foreigners, crowned with chaplets and 



HISTORY OF GPcEECE. 241 

dressed as for a festival, looked on gladly whilst 
the Long Walls and the strong fortifications of 
Athens were levelled with the ground. " That 
day," they said, "was the beginning of Grecian 
liberty/' But, if the power of foreseeing future 
events had been granted them, they would have 
known that the work of destruction, over which 
they rejoiced, was but the first of those scenes of 
ruin and misery which marked the downfall, not of 
Athens only, but of all the states of Greece. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 
b. c. 404 

When the walls of Athens were pulled down, Ly- 
sander proposed his plan for the government of the 
people he had conquered. Thirty persons were 
appointed as chief rulers, who were to govern ac- 
cording to the laws which the Spartans should 
think fit to ordain. Theramenes, the accuser of 
the generals, was one of the thirty. He had gained 
the favour of Lysander before Athens was taken, 
and now he was looked upon entirely as a friend of 
the Spartans. He did not, however, long remain 
so. Though he was a weak, bad man, yet he was 
not as cruel as many of the other rulers, — the Ty- 
rants, as they were soon called ; and the measures 
which they proposed soon shocked and disgusted 
him. Lysander himself sailed away to Samos as 
soon as the government was settled, in order to 
force the inhabitants to submit to the Spartans * 
and his colleagues carried out their plans without 
scruple in his absence. 
21 



242 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

They wished the Athenians to forget their an 
cient freedom and greatness/ and, therefore, thej 
removed what was called the " Bema," or standing- 
place, from which the speakers used to address the 
people, from its place looking towards Salamis and 
the sea, to a situation where nothing of the kind 
could be seen. But they could not succeed in 
blotting out from the memories of those whom they 
oppressed the glorious days when they were con- 
querors of the Persian armies, and honoured both 
at home and abroad, and if anything else had been 
necessary to make the Athenians long for freedom, 
it would have, been the conduct of the Thirty Ty- 
rants. Yet the new rulers only began their severe 
measures by degrees. They accused many persons 
of crimes, and caused them to be condemned and 
executed ; but these were generally low and bad 
people, whom every one was glad to see punished. 
After a time, however, they caused men to be 
arrested merely because they had been heard to 
express a liking for the old government, and these 
likewise were tried and condemned : no one daring 
to defend them, as all the offices of importance were 
in the hands of the tyrants. Lysander, when he 
returned to Athens, upheld these cruel proceedings. 
The best and wisest men in Athens were singled 
out for destruction, and their fellow-countrymen 
were compelled to assist the tyrants against them. 
Socrates, however, refused. On one occasion, being 
ordered to go to Salamis to arrest an innocent man, 
instead of obeying the commands of the tyrants, 
he returned to his home, and left it to others to 
execute the order. 

A pupil of Socrates, Critias, who had once been 
taught by him, but would not listen to his advice, 
was one of the worst of the tyrants, and it was with 
him that Theramenes first quarrelled. The dispute 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 243 

was caused by the following circumstance. As 
there was very little money left in Athens, the ty- 
rants despoiled the temples of their riches ; and ; 
when this did not satisfy them, it was proposed that 
each of them should fix upon one wealthy foreigner, 
living in Athens, and, after putting him to death, 
should take possession of his property. Thera- 
menes was invited to join in the guilty scheme, but 
he refused. Though he had done many very wrong 
things in his lifetime, he could not consent to such 
horrible wickedness as this, and the consequence 
was, that his colleagues determined to rid them- 
selves of him. 

Every precaution was taken to prevent his es- 
caping them. On a fixed day the council chamber 
was surrounded by a band of daring young men, 
armed with daggers ; and Critias then came for- 
ward, and accused Theramenes of being a traitor 
to his country, and an enemy to the government. 
Theramenes defended himself upon the whole sat- 
isfactorily, but Critias was determined upon his 
death, and succeeded in obtaining a sentence of 
condemnation against him. The ministers of jus- 
tice were summoned, and, without allowing any de- 
lay, Theramenes was compelled to drink the poison 
prepared for him. We may pity him, as he suf- 
fered at last in a good cause, but it is impossible 
to forget that he was only undergoing the same 
punishment which he had himself inflicted upon 
others. 

Soon after the death of Theramenes, the thirty 
tyrants were freed from another of their enemies, 
Alcibiades, who did not return to Athens after its 
fall, as many other exiles did. The tyrants were 
suspicious of him, and sentenced him to banish- 
ment. Not thinking himself safe in Europe, Alci- 
biades crossed over to Asia, and took refuge with 



244 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

one of the great Persian satraps. Some time after- 
wards, a house in which he was sleeping was set on 
fire in the night, and when he rushed out, he found 
himself surrounded by a body of armed men, who 
immediately murdered him. Some say this was 
done by the order of the Persian governor ; others^ 
that a few persons whom he had offended took this 
means of revenging themselves. He left a son 
of the same name, but very inferior to himself in 
talent. 

The cruelty of the tyrants increased when those 
whom they feared were dead ; but they were not 
long allowed to follow their wicked designs. 
Amongst the persons whom the tyrants had banish- 
ed was one named Thrasybulus, a noble, honour- 
able man, who had distinguished himself very much 
in the Peloponnesian war. He was at Thebes when 
the cruelty of the tyrants drove hundreds of the 
Athenian citizens into exile, and hearing so much 
of the wretchedness of his country, he resolved to 
undertake its deliverance. His friends at Thebes 
supplied him with arms and money, and about 
seventy of the exiles joined him. With this small 
body Thrasybulus crossed the frontier, and seized 
a fortress, built on a hill that projected from the 
side of Mount Parnes, and which was not more 
than twelve or thirteen miles from Athens. 

The tyrants were not much alarmed, for it 
seemed as if they must be able at once to crush 
such a feeble enemy. But the task was not by any 
means as easy as they had expected. Their first 
attack upon the fortress was repulsed, and then a 
heavy fall of snow came, which obliged them to go 
back to Attica. After this Thrasybulus was joined 
by a much larger number of exiles, and was able 
to sally forth boldly against his enemies, and at 
last a regular battle took place in Piraeus, in which 



HISTORY OF GREECE, 245 

Critias was killed. Thrasybulus and his soldiers 
showed much mercy to those who fought against 
them, and would take nothing from the slain ex- 
cept the arms which they needed themselves. When 
the dead bodies on both sides were given back, a 
friend of the exiles, who was possessed of a surpris- 
ingly powerful voice, took the opportunity to proclaim 
silence, and to entreat the Athenians no longer to 
serve the tyrants who oppressed them, but to join 
the cause of Thrasybulus. The address touched 
the hearts of all, and the commander of the troops, 
perceiving the effect it was likely to have, refused 
to allow his men to listen to it longer, and led them 
back to the city. 

The tyrants were now so frightened that they 
left Athens and retired to Eleusis, and ten new 
rulers were appointed in their places. But this 
change did not help Thrasybulus and the exiles. 
The new governors were not more favourable to 
them than the tyrants had been, and messengers 
were dispatched to Sparta, both from Eleusis and 
Athens, begging that aid might be sent against 
Thrasybulus. Lysander was then at Sparta, and 
his wish was that the tyrants should be supported. 
But he was looked upon with great jealousy by his 
fellow-countrymen, and although they allowed him 
to raise troops which were to serve against the 
exiles, they, at the same time, took care that the 
enterprise should not succeed. Pausanias, one of, 
the Spartan kings, accompanied Lysander to Attica 
with a large force, apparently intending to besiege 
Piraeus, which was in the possession of Thrasybulus, 
but at the same time he contrived to let the exiles 
know his friendly feelings for them ; and he secretly 
found means to encourage those persons in the city 
who wished for peace, to hold a meeting and send 
him an address begging for it. 



246 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

When the address was brought to Pausanias, a 
kinsman of Nicias appeared in the Spartan camp 
cringing with him some little children, descendants 
of Nicias, whose parents had been murdered by 
the tyrants. One he placed on the king's knee, 
and the others by his side, and then he begged for 
protection against the cruel men who had deprived 
the poor children of their natural guardians. Thi3 
entreaty was more powerful than any set speech. 
Pausanias, with the consent of the whole army, 
except Lysander and his friends, granted the exiles 
a truce for the time, and ambassadors were sent to 
Sparta who settled the terms of a regular peace 
which restored the Athenians to freedom, and en 
abled them to settle their government as they 
thought best. 

A general reconciliation was published at the 
time of the peace, from which none were excluded 
except the tyrants and a few other persons who had 
enjoyed power in the state, and used it to a bad 
purpose. Even they were to be allowed to live 
peaceably at Eleusis. When these arrangements 
were made, Pausanias sent away his forces, and 
the exiles triumphantly entered the city, and offered 
thanks and sacrifices to Athene, their protecting 
goddess ; and once more the Athenians began to 
look upon themselves, if not as a free and powerful 
people, such as they once were, yet at least as safe 
from cruel oppression. The tyrants, indeed, did 
not at once submit to be thus deprived of their 
power, and tried many times to recover it ; but 
their efforts were of no use, and we are told that 
they were all in the end put to death. 



HISTOE,Y OF GREECE. 247 

CHAPTER XXX. 

THE DEATH OF SOCRATES. 
1 b. c. 399. 

After having experienced so much suffering under 
the thirty tyrants, the Athenians were naturally 
very anxious to return to their old form of govern- 
ment, and one of the first decrees passed by the 
people in their public Assembly declared, that from 
henceforth the country should be ruled according 
to their ancient institutions. But although they 
improved their laws, and restored their old customs, 
they could not bring back their former prosperity. 
They had no money, no colonies nor allies; and 
the Spartans were watching them with a great deal 
of jealousy, lest they should find means to regain 
the power they had lost. The character of the 
people, too, had, in many ways, altered for the 
worse. They were more bent upon serving their 
own interests at the sacrifice of the general good ; 
men who had influence were often known to receive 
bribes to induce them to decide against what was 
right, and there was a great deal of injustice shown 
to rich persons, in accusing them of crimes and 
then seizing their estates for the public treasury. 
The habits of the citizens, also, were often very 
luxurious in public, and very wicked in private 
life. But the Athenians were not all corrupted ; 
some saw these evils and mourned over them, and 
did their best to remedy them ; and amongst these 
was Aristophanes, a writer of comedies. His plays 
were full of wit, and amused the people extremely, 
yet they had a really serious meaning, and were 
intended to show the folly and sinfulness of many 
of the Athenian customs. Socrates also laboured 
as much as possible to give his countrymen higher 



248 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

notions of their duties, and of religion. And yet 
strange to say, Aristophanes and Socrates were not 
friends, and Aristophanes even wrote a play, called 
" The Clouds," in which he brought in Socrates and 
all his oddities, and turned them into ridiqule. 

The reason of this seems to have "been that 
Aristophanes did not understand the ideas which 
Socrates had about religion, and fancied that he 
was one of a very bad class of men called Sophists, 
who have before been mentioned. The Sophists 
were clever in argument, but had little reverence 
for religion, and instead of keeping up clear dis- 
tinctions between right and wrong, they used to 
pride themselves upon being able to argue inge- 
niously in favour of whatever they wished. Our 
word sophistical, which means making an action 
appear right when in truth it is wrong, is derived 
from the way in which the Sophists argued. 

Now Socrates was not at all a Sophist, but it was 
true that he had notions of religion different from 
those of his fellow-countrymen. He did not pro- 
fess to give up the worship of the gods of the Athe- 
nians, or refuse to join in their common religious 
ceremonies, for it had never been revealed to him 
that they were wrong; but he had a great idea of 
the existence of one Supreme God, the Maker and 
Governor of the world ; and when he spoke of his 
belief m " One God," it seemed like a new religion 
to those who worshipped many gods. In this way 
Socrates was at last looked upon as a corrupter of 
the religious principles of his countrymen. 

For many years there had been complaints 
made of him ; but it was not till the year b. c. 399, 
two years, that is, after the expulsion of the thirty 
tyrants, that any regular accusation was brought 
forward. Then a charge was made by some per- 
sons who were very desirous of keeping up the 



HISTORY OF 3REECE. 249 

ancient religion, in these words : " Socrates is 
guilty of not believing in the gods which the state 
believes in, and of introducing other new divinities : 
he is moreover guilty of corrupting the young." 
The punishment proposed for these crimes was 
death. 

From the first Socrates appears to have been 
certain that the charge would be believed, and that 
he should be condemned. He defended himself, 
indeed, but he made no appeals for mercy, such as 
were common in those days ; but rather demanded 
reward and honour. The public feeling was strongly 
against him. He was known to have been the 
teacher of Alcibiades and Critias, who had brought 
great evils on their country ; and no one remem- 
bered that both these men had turned away from 
him, offended, because he reproved their vices. 
The people had such a clear remembrance of the 
miseries endured under the thirty tyrants, that any 
person at all connected with them, as Socrates was 
with Critias, was looked upon with dread and dis- 
like. 

Sentence of death was passed ; and he was con- 
demned to drink the juice of hemlock, a strong 
poison. Socrates heard the decree unmoved ; and 
when one of his friends broke out into lamentations 
that he should die innocent, he merely replied with 
a smile, " Would you have me die guilty ? My 
enemies may kill me, but they cannot hurt me." 
The execution of the sentence was, however, de- 
layed for a little time, in consequence of a yearly 
religious custom of sending offerings to the temple 
of Apollo, at Delos. From the moment that the 
vessel, which carried these offerings, departed, until 
its return, no criminal was allowed to be executed. 
The punishment of Socrates was, therefore, put off 
for thirty days, and during this time many of his 



250 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

friends entreated him to make his escape, which 
he might have done without difficulty. But Soc- 
rates was then seventy years old, and he could not 
bear to save a life which he knew could not be long, 
by breaking the laws which he had hitherto so care- 
fully upheld. The hours of his imprisonment were 
cheered by the society of his friends ; and when at 
length it was announced to him that the vessel 
from Delos was returned, he continued as calm and 
cheerful as before, and passed the day in conversing 
upon the most solemn subjects, chiefly relating to 
the life after death, in which he firmly believed. 

As the hour for drinking the hemlock — which 
was at sunset — drew near, Crito, one of his great 
friends, asked if he had anything to arrange re- 
specting his burial : " That which you please," 
replied Socrates, " if you can lay hold of me, and 
I escape not from your hands ;" and looking at his 
friends with a smile, he added, " Crito always ima- 
gines that I am what he is going to see dead in a 
little while. He confounds me with my body, and 
therefore asks me how I would be interred." 

The cup of poison was brought to him. He 
took it without the least change of countenance, 
spent a few minutes in silent prayer, and drank off 
the contents. His friends burst into tears, but So- 
crates gentiy reproved them, reminding them that 
it was a duty to die peaceably and with thankful- 
ness to the gods. After walking up and down the 
room for some time the poison began to take effect, 
and he stretched himself on his bed and covered 
his face. But as he found his last moments draw- 
ing near, he uncovered it again, and addressing 
Crito, reminded him of an offering due to iEscula- 
pius, the god of medicine : " Discharge that now 
for me," he said, " and forget it not." These were 
his last words, and strange though they may seem 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 251 

to us, yet they were a proof of the sincerity with 
which Socrates desired to fulfil every possible re- 
ligious duty, whatever reason he might have had in 
his own mind to doubt whether it was absolutely 
necessary. 

The Athenians, as usual, repented their sentence 
when it was too late. The accusers of Socrates 
were punished ; one being condemned to death, and 
the others banished ; and a statue of brass, the 
work of Lysippus, a celebrated statuary, was placed 
in one of the most public parts of the city. The 
general respect indeed, at length rose to such a 
height, that a chapel was dedicated to him ? and he 
was worshipped as a demi-god. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND GREEKS. 
B. C. 401. 

"We must now return to some events which took 
place a year before the death of Socrates, when a 
body of Greeks were engaged in an expedition in 
Persia. The facts do not belong to the history of 
any particular state, but have become celebrated 
from the hardships which the Greeks endured, the 
fortitude which they showed, and the great skill 
of Xenophon, the general who led them back to 
Europe. 

The expedition was undertaken in the service 
of Cyrus, commonly called Cyrus the Younger, who 
rebelled against his brother, Artaxerxes, king of 
Persia. Artaxerxes was the rightful heir, but 
Cyrus was the favourite of his mother, Parysatis, 
and she it was who encouraged him in his rebellion. 



252 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

"We have seen before that Cyrus had been con- 
nected with the affairs of Greece, especially with 
those of the Spartans, of whose bravery and talents 
he had in consequence formed a high opinion. 
When he began to plan his rebellion, his thoughts 
naturally turned to the Greeks ; for he felt that 
with their help he might succeed in dethroning his 
brother, but without it he could scarcely hope to do 
so. Cyrus was at that time living amongst the 
Greeks in Asia Minor, as he was governor of some 
of the provinces there. His winning manners, 
his hospitality, and his courage and energy, won 
the affections of many, and especially gained the 
goodwill of Clearchus, a Spartan, who, for several 
offences, had been obliged to leave his country. 
Lysander was also friendly to the Persian prince, 
and no doubt used all his influence in his favour ; 
for, in the end the Spartan government was per- 
suaded to send ships and men, to join the forces 
which Cyrus was collecting from amount ^he 
Greeks in Asia. 

Still Cyrus did not venture to declare his real 
purpose. It was supposed by all, except his partic- 
ular friends, that he was preparing to subdue one 
of * the rebellious provinces in Asia Minor ; and 
even when the troops were assembled, and had set 
out on their march from Sardis, where Cyrus held 
his court, by far the greater number were ignorant 
what they were about to do. As they proceeded on 
their journey, however, they began to suspect the , 
truth, for it was very evident that Cyrus had no in- 
tention of subduing any revolted province. The 
Greeks refused to follow him further. " It was 
not," they said, " for the purpose of fighting against 
the king that they had entered his service ;" and 
the soldiers under Clearchus, especially, became so 
angry that they threatened to stone him. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 253 

Clearchus soothed them by declaring that he 
did not wish to do any thing against their inclina- 
tions ; and as it was not positively known that 
Cyrus was in rebellion against his brother, the 
troops moved on again. 

Artaxerxes was well aware of the plans of Cyrus. 
He had collected large forces, and was quite prepar- 
ed to oppose him ; and after Cyrus and the Greeks 
had undergone great hardships in a long and weary 
march, the two armies met at a village called Cu- 
naxa, about sixty or seventy miles from Babylon. 

The Greeks by this time had no doubt of the 
object for which they were to fight, but Cyrus had 
gained them over by many flattering words, and the 
offer of high rewards. The soldiers were promised 
a crown of gold in addition to the more solid re- 
compenses they might expect ; and the generals and 
officers were exhorted to show themselves worthy of 
the high esteem which Cyrus felt for them, and 
which rendered them, he said, of more account in 
his eyes than a whole host of barbarians. The only 
caution he gave them was not to be startled by 
the clamour of the enemy, for this was all they 
would find formidable in the onset. "Indeed," he 
added, " he was almost ashamed to think, how con- 
temptible the Asiatics would appear to them in 
every thing but the sound of their voices. 57 

Some persons seemed to doubt, before the armies 
met, whether Artaxerxes would risk a battle, and 
Clearchus asked Cyrus what he thought upon the 
subject. Cyrus himself was quite certain. " If 
Artaxerxes," he said, " is the son of Darius and 
Parysatis, and my brother, I certainly shall not be- 
come master of all he possesses without a struggle." 
Yet in spite of this expectation Cyrus was at last 
taken by surprise, for on reaching Cunaxa, near 
which the army was to halt and rest a Persian of 
22 



254 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

ficer, high in his favor, rode up to the camp at full 
speed, his horse covered with foam, calling out to 
all he met, that the king's army was approaching in 
order of battle. The tidings were heard with great 
consternation, for it was feared that Artaxerxes 
would attack them before they could recover from 
the disorder of the march. Cyrus alighted instant- 
ly from his chariot, and put on his armoar; and 
springing upon his horse, gave orders for the army 
to form in the line of battle. He himself was 
placed in the centre with a guard of six hundred 
horsemen, and distinguished from them only by wear- 
ing the tiara instead of a helmet. 

It was towards the middle of the afternoon, 
that a cloud of dust gave notice that the army of 
Artaxerxes was actually drawing near. Then, a 
dark mass was seen moving steadily forwards, bright- 
ened at times by the sparkling light which flashed 
from the armour and the weapons of the soldiers. 
Contrary to the expectation of Cyrus, the army of 
Artaxerxes advanced in perfect silence, whilst the 
Greeks raised the Paean or battle song, and joined 
in shouts, which, with the clashing of their spears 
against their shields, startled both the horses and 
the drivers of the enemy's chariots. When the bat- 
tle began, Cyrus kept his attention fixed upon Arta- 
xerxes. His own guards were dispersed in the con- 
fusion of the battle, and he found himself left with 
a few officers near the spot where his brother was 
stationed. The moment that Cyrus perceived the 
king, he spurred his horse forward, exclaiming, li I 
see the man." The two brothers met. Artaxerx- 
es was wounded and thrown from his horse, but 
his attendants raised him from the ground, and re- 
seated him. Nearly at the same moment a javelin 
was cast, either by Artaxerxes or one of his attend- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 255 

ants, which wounded Cyrus, and he fell; and in a 
few minutes he was overpowered and slain. 

The whole account of the battle strikes us as 
unnatural and shocking. Artaxerxes was always 
anxious for the honour, as he called it, of having 
killed his brother : and when the head and right 
hand of Cyrus were, according to the Persian 
custom, cut off and brought to him, it is said, that 
he seized the head by the hair and held it up as a 
proof of his victory. 

The history of this war is given by Xenophon, 
a Greek historian, who, as we shall presently see, 
was a very important person concerned in it. He 
speaks highly of the good qualities of Cyrus, and 
says that he commanded the love and respect of his 
followers ; but it is impossible for us to forget that he 
was a rebellious subject, and an unnatural brother, 
and sacrificed the highest duties to his ambition. 

The situation of the Greeks after the battle of 
Cunaxa was very perplexing. They were in the 
midst of an enemy's country, with nothing to be 
gained by going forward, and very little hopes of 
safety if they went back. Their first idea was to 
supply the place of Cyrus by offering to place Arieeus, 
one of his great friends and companions, on the 
Persian throne ; but this offer Ariaeus refused. Arta- 
xerxes sent envoys to them to propose that they 
should lay down their arms and submit ; adding 
that h if they did so, they might afterwards be em- 
ployed in his service." But the Greeks would not 
agree to this proposal. " If they were to be the 
king's friends," they said, "they should be more 
serviceable to him with their arms than without 
them ; and if they were his enemies they would 
need them to defend themselves." 

Retreat seemed the only course possible, and 
retreat was determined upon. Clearchus took the 



256 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

command. They were then two thousand miles 
from the sea coast, by the road along which they 
had come ; and that by which they were to return 
would be much longer, as they were obliged to go 
out of their way to avoid the enemy. 

It was a most discouraging undertaking, but 
after the first setting out it seemed more hopeful 
than could have been expected ; for the king, see- 
ing they were not to be daunted by any dangers, 
sent messengers after them to propose a truce for a 
little while ; and even consented to give them 
guides, who would conduct them to places where 
they might obtain provisions. 

Tissaphernes, also, the great Persian satrap, 
came to them, with some other persons of dis- 
tinction, and professing great friendship for them, 
obtained permission from Artaxerxes for their safe 
return to their own country, on condition of their 
doing no mischief in the king's territories, and pay- 
ing for every thing they took. 

All this appeared very satisfactory, but the 
Greeks could not help having a suspicion that 
these fair offers were not thoroughly sincere. 

Tissaphernes was to escort them on their way 
with a body of his own men, and Ariaeus, the Per- 
sian, also, travelled with them. Ariseus had receiv- 
ed offers of pardon from Artaxerxes for the offence 
of- which he had been guilty in assisting Cyrus ; 
and now that he felt safe, he did not show the 
Greeks the same kindness which, he had done 
before. 

As they all journeyed on, several circumstances 
occurred to make the Greeks more and more suspi- 
cious of the Persians, and Clearchus at length 
thought it advisable to speak openly to Tissapher- 
nes, and tell him what they feared. Tissaphernes 
was not angry. He only begged Clearchus to reflect 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 257 

on the absurdity of such suspicions. " Supposing," 
he said. " that it was the king's wish to destroy 
them, there were means enough to do so without 
having recourse to treachery which would be impious 
in the sight of the gods, and infamous in the eyes 
of men. But they need really be under no uneasi- 
ness, for, owing to the influence of Tissaphernes 
himself, they might be quite sure now that they 
were safe." 

Clearchus was convinced. He was even anxious 
that the persons who had raised the suspicion should 
be discovered and punished, and it was agreed that 
Clearchus should bring his principal officers before 
Tissaphernes the next day ; and that both should 
then point out the persons whom they knew to have 
said things to excite the distrust of the army. The 
officers who were proved to be guilty, were to be 
punished as traitors. 

After this arrangement Tissaphernes detained 
Clearchus to sup with him, loaded him with kind- 
ness, and sent him to the camp the next morning 
perfectly satisfied. 

The soldiers, however, were not equally pleased 
when they heard what had passed. Even amongst 
the common men there were some who saw the 
danger that might befall them if they placed their 
chief officers in the power of Tissaphernes. But 
Clearchus was not to be persuaded. He had selfish 
reasons for persisting in his intentions. He sus- 
pected one of his officers to be his enemy, and he 
hoped that by taking him before Tissaphernes, he 
might be convicted as a traitor. Four of the gen- 
erals, and twenty of the inferior officers, consented 
to accompany Clearchus, the rest refused. When 
they came to the head quarters of Tissaphernes, 
the generals and Clearchus were admitted within, 
the inferior officers remained without, and with 



258 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

them a body of Greek soldiers who had followed 
from curiosity. They had not been there long be- 
fore a signal was given, the generals were arrested, 
and the unfortunate officers and men who had ac- 
companied them were massacred ; whilst a troop of 
Persian horsemen galloped over the plain, around 
the Persian camp, and cut down every Greek who 
fell in their way. 

The news of this treachery quickly reached the 
Greek camp. In the utmost consternation the 
soldiers seized their arms, expecting that the enemy 
would soon turn upon them. But this was not the 
case. The generals were kept prisoners, and were 
all sent to Artaxerxes, and afterwards killed ; but 
the soldiers were only required to lay down their 
arms. This however they would not do. Notwith- 
standing the extreme danger they were in, at a 
distance of hundreds of miles from their country, 
without provisions or guides, without even a single 
horseman to assist them in fighting their way, they 
were still bent upon a retreat. Yet the hearts of 
all were very heavy : few could sleep that night, 
and few even found energy sufficient to taste food, 
or even to light a fire ; but throwing themselves on 
the ground, wherever they might chance to be, 
they spent the long hours of darkness in mournful 
thoughts of their homes, their parents, and children, 
and friends, whom in all human probability they 
would never see again. 

Ten thousand Greeks were left in this state of 
extreme peril, but help was found for them at the 
last minute. Xenophon, an Athenian, and a pupil 
of Socrates, who had accompanied the army merely 
for his own pleasure, was spending that night, like 
his companions, lost in gloomy thoughts, when he 
fell asleep for a short time, and awoke after a vivid 
dream, which gave another turn to his ideas. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 259 

" Why," he said to himself, " should I "be lying 
here, while the night is wearing away, and the 
enemy may be expected to fall upon us at day- 
break. No one is making any preparation for re- 
sistance, and if I wait for a more experienced gen* 
eral to step forward, the time for action will have 
passed away." As these considerations pressed 
upon his mind, he rose, and calling together a few 
officers, urged them at once to make provision for 
defence, and to appoint leaders to fill the places of 
those they had lost ; by which means, he said, they 
would do much towards keeping up the spirits of 
their men. The proposal was received with great 
satisfaction, and the remainder of the Greek officers 
being called together, they appointed five new gen- 
erals, Xenophon being one, and then proceeded to 
consider what was next to be done. 

Xenophon was still their adviser. He was a 
man of astonishing eloquence, as well as talent and 
courage, and when he addressed the assembly, all 
were inclined to listen and obey. The danger they 
were in was plain to all, but Xenophon was full of 
hope and confidence, and inspired those who heard 
him with something of his own spirit. He insisted 
much upon the necessity of order and obedience, 
saying that the enemy had doubtless wished to in- 
troduce disorder into the camp, by depriving them 
of their generals; but he trusted the Persians 
would find that in the room of one Clearchus, there 
were now ten thousand men always on the watch 
to repress any breach of discipline. Besides this 
advice, he also suggested that they should burn 
their waggons, their tents, and all the baggage 
which was not absolutely necessary, as such things 
would delay their march, and encumber them if 
they were called upon to fight. 

The soldiers left the assembly to follow the ad- 



260 HISTORY OP GREECE 

vice of Xenophon. Every thing that could possi? 
bly be spared was set on fire, and soon after the 
ten thousand Greeks proceeded on their retreat. 

The courage, patience, firmness, and mildness of 
Xenophon, are plainly discovered from the account 
which he himself afterwards wrote of the celebrat- 
ed retreat. The troops marched forward through 
the enemy's country, followed by Tissaphernes, and 
often attacked by the natives of the places through 
which they passed ; and when, after immense diffi- 
culty, they reached Armenia, where Tissaphernes 
ceased to pursue them, they suffered as much from 
the intense coldness of the weather, as they had 
done before from the forces of their enemies. The 
snow lay six feet deep on their road, and many died 
from the effects of the piercing air, and the sharp- 
ness of the keen north wind. On they went, keep- 
ing to the north of Armenia, and forcing their way 
through savage tribes, sword in hand, till at length 
they arrived at a lofty ridge of mountains, known 
by the name of the Sacred Mountain. The fore- 
most rank had reached the summit, when Xeno- 
phon, who was behind, perceived them suddenly 
stop. His first idea was that they had come in 
sight of an enemy, and he rode forward to learn, 
the cause of the delay. Loud shouts struck his 
ear, mingled with the joyful exclamation of u the 
sea ! the sea !" 

The waters of the Euxine lay beneath them. 
They were in the neighbourhood of Greek cities, 
and their dangers were nearly over. Both men 
and officers embraced each other with tears of joy, 
and joined in rearing a pile of stones on the top of 
the mountain, on which they placed the weapons of 
their prisoners, and other offerings, as a tribute of 
gratitude to the gods, and in remembrance of their 
deliverance. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 26 j 

Out of the .0,000 Greeks who began the retreat 
together, about 8,600 survived its perils. These 
had been friends in distress, but when the common 
danger was over they began to quarrel, and Xeno- 
phon had great difficulty in keeping them together 
as long as it was necessary. They dispersed by 
degrees, and some of them entered the service of a 
prince of Thrace. Xenophon himself, intead of 
being received with honour by his fellow-citizens at 
Athens, was sent into banishment, probably because 
the Athenians were angry with him for having 
taken a share in the expedition of Cyrus, and per- 
haps, also, because they were jealous of the interest 
which he showed in the affairs of Sparta. The 
Spartans gave him a grant of land, and a home in 
a pleasant valley, not far from the plain of Olympia ; 
and here he afterwards built a small temple, after 
the model of the great temple of Diana, at Ephesus, 
and placed in it an image, of cypress wood, of the 
same form as the great golden image which is men- 
tioned in the Acts of the Apostles. A grove of 
fruit trees surrounded the temple ; and woods 
abounding with game, and fields, through which 
flowed a little stream of water, were spread around 
it. In this peaceful abode Xenophon lived for 
many years, dividing his time between his books 
and his friends, and the amusement of hunting ; and 
setting an example, which we might do well to fol- 
low, in making religion — such as he understood it 
to be — his principal care. There are different 
stories told of the end of his life, but there is great 
reason to believe that in his old age he was restored 
to his native city. 



262 HISTORY OP GREECE. 



CHAPTEK XXXII. 

THE PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. 
e a 387 

Whilst the 10.000 Greeks were thus making theif 
way with difficulty to their own country, Tissapher* 
nes was rewarded for his services, and was made 
governor of the provinces which had before been 
subject to Cyrus. As a part of this government 
he claimed dominion over several of the Greek 
cities in Asia, but instead of submitting to him, 
they declared they would be independent, and 
sought for help from the Spartans. This brought 
on a war between Sparta and Persia, which was 
carried on chiefly in Asia Minor. Agesilaus, one 
of the Spartan kings, had the chief command a 
great part of the time, but Lysander accompanied 
him as one of his advisers. Lysander and Agesi- 
laus did not long continue friends. Lysander, hav- 
ing had, in former times, a great influence over the 
Greek cities in Asia, was received on his arrival 
with much homage, and Agesilaus became jealous 
of him, and showed his ill-feeling by refusing to 
grant any petitions which were made to him through 
Lysander. Lysander reproached him with tl is un- 
kindness, and begged to be sent away to some other 
place, where he might not be exposed to such humili- 
ation ; and to this the Spartan king agreed. Ly- 
sander was sent- to the Hellespont, and Agesilaus 
carried on the war without him. 

It was his object, so he said, to make the Greek 
cities independent of Persia, but he also seems to 
have had an intention of attacking the whole power 
of the Persian empire ; and he so far succeeded as 
to gain a great victory near Sardis, which made 
him feel that if the Spartan government ^ ould only 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 263 

give him full assistance, he might even become the 
conqueror of Persia. This victory gained by the 
Spartans caused the ruin of Tissaphernes. He had 
always been hated by Parysatis, the mother of Ar- 
taxerxes and Cyrus, for having taken part against 
Cyrus, her favourite son ; and now she persuaded 
the king that Tissaph ernes was a traitor, and de- 
served to die. Certainly Tissapherues was of a 
treacherous disposition, for he was continually de- 
ceiving all persons he was connected with ; pre- 
tending to befriend them, when in reality he thought 
of nothing but his own interests. He had not, how- 
ever, been faithless on this occasion ; yet the weak 
Persian monarch yielded to his cruel mother's ar- 
guments, and Tissaphernes was killed. 

The Persian governors of provinces were so 
powerful that they were almost kings ; and the go- 
vernor who succeeded Tissaphernes wished to make 
peace with Agesilaus, as if he was quite independ- 
ent of his master, the king of Persia. But peace 
was not what Agesilaus desired ; and the Persian 
satrap, finding himself in great difficulty, and wish- 
ing, above all things, to divert the attention of the 
Spartans from his own province, sent messengers 
secretly to Greece to stir up the different states, 
and persuade some, and bribe others, to undertake 
a war against Sparta at home. 

It was not a difficult task, for the Spartans were 
at this time by no means liked in Greece. They 
had accused the Athenians of being harsh and 
tyrannical in their time of power, but they do not 
seem to have been at all better themselves. They 
had quarrelled with the people of Elis, and made 
that state subject to them, although it had always 
before been peculiarly safe and guarded, because 
of the temple at Olympia, which belonged to it. 
The Eleans, therefore, had no love for the Spartans ; 



264 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

Argos was always an enemy ; Corinth. Arcadia, and 
Achaia, had many complaints to make ; and Athens, 
of course, was quite ready to put herself at the 
head of the confederacy, and endeavour to humble 
the pride of her ancient rival. 

The Spartans had not one sincere friend abroad, 
neither were they safe in their own dominions. 
There was a strong feeling of hatred amongst the 
lower orders against the higher classes, and a short 
time before a terrible conspiracy had been dis- 
covered, the first we hear of in Sparta, by which 
it was intended to murder the king, who was then 
in the city, the senators, the ephors, and, in fact, 
all those who really had a title to the name of 
Spartan. For we must remember, that although 
all the inhabitants of Laconia, both those in the 
city, and those in the country, were often spoken of 
as Spartans, yet, strictly speaking, only the citizens 
had a claim to be so called, or were allowed to have 
any real authority in the state, since they were the 
descendants of that race of Dorians who, in former 
years, had invaded and conquered Laconia. The 
conspirators were discovered, and the leaders were 
seized, tortured, and put to death. But though 
the evil was, in this way, stopped for the time, 
yet the very fact of there being such a plot, 
showed how much the government and the chief 
persons in the state were out of favour with the 
people. 

The war which the Persian governor tried to 
excite broke out at last, in consequence of some 
quarrels amongst the smaller states, but it spread 
quickly c Lysander took the command of the Spar- 
tan armies, but in one of the early battles he was 
slain, and then the Spartans, being greatly in want 
of a skilful general, sent to recall Agesilaus from 
Asia. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 265 

This was a terrible blow to the ambitious plans 
which Agesilaus was so bent upon carrying out. 
All that he had done hitherto had answered his 
wishes. He was gaining friends amongst the Per- 
sians, and had really a fair prospect of attaining 
his object of conquering the empire ; but the com- 
mand of the ephors could not be disobeyed, and 
without any delay he prepared to go back to Sparta, 
leaving about 4000 men to guard the Greek cities, 
and promising to return as soon as possible. 

The Spartans, in the meantime, had been very 
active, and before Agesilaus reached Greece a battle 
had been fought near Corinth, in which they were 
so victorious that it seemed as if the dread of their 
name alone was enough to overpower all resistance. 
Agesilaus, also, as he advanced through Thrace 
and Macedonia, overcame the barbarous tribes who 
opposed him, and appeared to carry victory with 
him. But just as he arrived at the borders of 
Boeotia he received intelligence of an event which 
not only caused him great personal sorrow, but was 
also a terrible public calamity. This event was 
the destruction of the Spartan fleet, and the death 
of its admiral, who was his brother-in-law. At 
any time this loss would have been felt very deeply, 
but Agesilaus knew that he had, in a great measure, 
to blame himself for it. Whilst he was in Asia 
he had taken great pains to collect the fleet, and 
so far had acted wisely and rightly ; but afterwards 
it became his duty to appoint an admiral, and 
instead of choosing the person whom he knew to 
be most fitted for that office, he appointed Pisander, 
because he was his wife's brother, and he was fond 
of him. 

Now the consequences of this fault were to bo 
felt not by himself alone, but by hundreds of others. 
Pisander had very little experience, whilst the 
23 



266 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Persians had the advantage of a most admirable 
commander — no less a person than Conon, the 
Athenian, who had escaped to Cyprus after the 
battle of iEgospotami, in which the Athenian fleet 
was destroyed, and had since entered the service 
of the king of Persia, hoping by his help to free 
Athens from the power of Sparta. 

When Conon and Pisander met in battle, which 
they did off the coast of Syria, after Agesilaus left 
Asia, Pisander was unable to contend with the skil- 
ful Athenian. Some of his allies took to flight, 
others were driven on shore. Pisander remained 
to the last on board his ship, and died like a Spar- 
tan, sword in hand ; but personal courage could not 
restore what Sparta had lost by the battle, and the 
news of the misfortune must have been a sad blow 
to the hopes of the country. 

The Spartans continued the war by land with 
considerable success for several years, chiefly in the 
neighbourhood of Corinth, but they never recovered 
their losses by sea/ Conon, whose great wish was 
to restore the greatness of his own state, persuaded 
the Persians that if the Long Walls of Athens, 
which had been destroyed by Lysander, could be 
rebuilt, it would do more to humble the Spartans 
than any victory. Having obtained sufficient money 
from them for his purpose, he sailed to Athens, and 
the walls were rebuilt ; even the crews of the ships 
which he took with him assisting in the work. The 
Spartans now looked upon Conon as their great 
enemy, and longed to rid themselves of him, and 
before long their wish was attained. The Persians 
began to think of making peace, and terms were 
pi aposed which Conon did not approve. He said 
so openly, and this was considered to be speaking 
against the king. He was seized and put in prison, 
and though he afterwards escaped, yet he took no 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 267 

part again in the war, and died in Cyprus. The 
Athenians showed their gratitude to him for his 
services by erecting a brazen statue to his memory. 
The peace which Conon so much disliked was at 
length concluded in the year b.c. 387. It is gener- 
ally called the peace of Antalcidas, because An- 
talcidas, a clever Spartan, was the person who 
principally arranged it. 

All parties were tired of the war, and all had 
reasons for wishing it to be at an end, since they 
began to see that no advantage could be gained 
from it. 

But the peace which was made was certainly 
not what might have been expected. The war had 
been begun for the purpose, it was said, of making 
the Greek cities in Asia Minor independent of the 
Persian king ; but when a meeting of deputies from 
Greece was held, to hear what the king of Persia 
was willing to agree to, the following decree was 
read to them : 

" King Artaxerxes thinks it right that the Greek 
cities in Asia, and the islands of Clazomense and 
Cyprus, should belong to himself; but that all the 
other Greek cities, both small and great, should be 
left independent, with the exception of Lemnos, 
Imbrus, and Scyrus ; and that these should, as of 
old, belong to the Athenians. If any state refuse 
to accept this peace, I will make war against it." 

Thus the king of Persia spoke proudly, as if he 
was the person to decide upon the affairs of Greece ; 
and the Greek cities in Asia Minor were left just 
as much subject to him as they were when the war 
began. 



268 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE BATTLE OF LEUCTRA. 
B. c. 371. 

The Lacedaemonians, considering their state as the 
most important in Greece, took upon themselves to 
see that every one else complied with the terms of 
the peace of Antalcidas ; and, as usual, they be- 
haved selfishly and haughtily. The city of Man- 
tinea, in Arcadia, had not been friendly to them in 
the late war ; and now, though peace was estab- 
lished, the Spartans revenged themselves by order- 
ing that the walls of the city should be thrown 
down. The Mantineans resisted, and the Spartans 
sent an army against them. The city was taken 
by means of an embankment, which stopped the 
course of a small stream, and turned the water 
against the brick walls so as to make them crack and 
totter. The Mantineans propped up the walls, but 
nothing that they could do could save them, and at 
last they were obliged to yield ; the city was de- 
stroyed, and the inhabitants dispersed amongst four 
different villages. 

In this way the Spartans showed that they were 
determined to be supreme in Greece. Whenever 
disputes arose, they were sure to interfere, in order 
to gain power ; whatever they might order, they 
expected to be instantly obeyed ; and the only good 
thiug we hear of them is, that they permitted the 
Plateans to return to their land and rebuild their 
city. 

They were now at the greatest height of their 
greatness, but their downfall was near at hand. 
Like the Athenians, they had used power tyranni- 
cally, and the punishment of their great fault was 
soon to fall upon them. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 269 

An act of injustice was the first cause of their 
misfortunes. For five years they had been carry- 
ing on a war with Olynthus, a Greek city in Mace- 
donia. It was not begun on their own account, but 
in order to assist some of the enemies of the Olyn- 
thians, who had applied to them for help. It hap- 
pened, during this war, that a Spartan army, on its 
way to Olynthus, was passing near the city of 
Thebes, which was then disturbed by the quarrels 
of two parties of citizens. 5Jhe leader of one of 
these parties, thinking that the Spartans would be 
likely to favour him, held a communication with 
the general of the army, and offered to betray 
Thebes into his hands. Of course, this was not 
done with the idea that the Spartans were always 
to remain the masters of Thebes, but only that 
they were to assist the leader who professed to be 
their friend. The Spartans, however, having once 
gained an entrance into Thebes, resolved to keep 
it ; and, in spite of the injustice of the action, they 
took the citadel for their own, and made themselves 
governors of the place. 

There were at that time in Thebes two persons 
of great talent, high birth, and noble principles, 
who were also distinguished for their affection for 
each other. Pelopidas was a rich man, fond of 
action, and desirous of glory. Epaminondas was 
very poor, of a quiet, thoughtful disposition, yet 
always willing to exert himself when his duty re- 
quired it. They had long been attached to each 
other, and had served together in war, and lived in 
great intimacy amidst all the anxieties of those 
troubled times ; yet Epaminondas would never con- 
sent to accept money from his friend, and Pelopidas, 
instead of being angry with him, only tried to imi- 
tate his habits, and practice the same temperance 
and self-denial. The affection of Epaminondas for 



270 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Pelopidas was especially shown at the siege of 
Mantinea, when the Thebans assisted the Spartans. 
Pelopidas was wounded, and fell, and Epaminondaa 
believed him to be dead. But he would not even 
then forsake him ; and, throwing himself upon tho 
body of Pelopidas, he continued to shield it until 
he was nearly overpowered, and would probably 
have been killed, but for the happy arrival of some 
Spartans, who saved them both. 

When the Spartans, as we mentioned before, 
seized the citadel of Thebes, Pelopidas fled with 
several other persons to Athens. Epaminondas 
remained at Thebes, hoping that he might be the 
means of preventing violence. He kept up a con- 
stant correspondence, however, with his friends at 
Athens, who were full of impatience to revenge 
themselves upon the Spartans. The accounts' 
which they received of the cruelty and wickedness 
of the Spartan leaders at Thebes, increased this 
feeling every day ; and a plan was formed by Pe- 
lopidas and some of his friends, to rescue their na- 
tive city. But Epaminondas, though he wished for 
the success of the project, would not take part in it, 
fearing that it would only be executed by means 
of a tumult, in which, probably, innocent persons 
would be killed. Pelopidas did not feel the same 
scruples, and, all the necessary arrangements being 
made for obtaining help from Athens, if necessary, 
he and a small number of chosen companions dis- 
guised themselves as hunters, and set out for 
Thebes. One of his friends in the city, who had 
been prepared beforehand for their arrival, offered 
them his house for a hiding-place ; and another in- 
vited two of the Spartan leaders to a banquet. 
When the evening came, some of the companions 
of Pelopidas issued forth from their place of con- 
cealment, and were admitted, by the help of their 



HISTORY OF CtREECE. 271 

friends, to the banqueting room, when they imme- 
diately rushed upon the two Spartans and killed 
them. Pelopidas, with two companions, went, in 
the meantime, to the house of another Spartan 
leader, and, having gained admittance, though with 
some difficulty, killed him ; and then proceeded to 
punish a fourth in the same terrible manner. 
After this they set a number of their friends at 
liberty, who had been put in prison by the Spar- 
tans, and went through the streets, proclaiming the 
downfall of the tyrants, and inviting all true The- 
bans to join them. 

The citizens remained quiet during the night, 
not understanding all that was going on, but when 
the morning came, and they all met together, their 
joy was unbounded. The exiles were received 
with shouts of triumph, and Pelopidas and two of 
his friends were chosen to be chief rulers, with the 
title of Boeotarchs, — an ancient name for the gov 
ernors of the different cities in Bceotia. Some 
Athenian troops now marched to Thebes to assist 
the inhabitants, and the Spartans were obliged to 
give up the citadel ; and, as a matter of course, 
war was declared against Thebes by the Spartan 
government. Agesilaus was offered the command 
of the army, but he declined, saying that he was 
too old ; though the truth probably was, that he 
did not like to have anything to do with a war 
which had been caused by such wrong conduct. 
He was afterwards, however, induced to alter his 
determination. 

The Athenians seemed at first disinclined to 
assist the Thebans. The favour they had already 
shown them was only granted by two of their gen- 
erals, who did not ask the consent of the people, 
and who were afterwards severely punished for 
What they had done. Probably, the Athenians 



272 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

did not want to bring upon themselves the angei 
of the Spartans ; but, though they kept aloof for a 
little while, they were at last induced to declare 
themselves in favour of Thebes, by a false alarm 
which the Thebans themselves caused, and which 
made them think that the Spartans were going to 
attack them. If this had been true, of course they 
could not have done better than join with Thebes, 
When once they had determined upon war, the 
Athenians carried it on for some time vigorously. 
Alliances were concluded with a number of impor- 
tant islands and seaport cities, and Athens again 
began to be looked upon as the head of the Grecian 
states. Yet the inferior states were still considered 
independent, for none of them would have been 
willing to own themselves subjects of Athens, 
knowing how hardly they had been treated by her 
in former days. Neither were the Thebans at all 
backward in their efforts against Sparta. Pelopi- 
das was an excellent commander, and with his help, 
and that of Epaminondas, a well-trained army was 
raised, amongst which were a body of young men, 
distinguished above all others, called the " Sacred 
Band." There were three hundred of them, all 
friends, and remarkable for bravery and love of 
their native land. The Sacred Band were the 
chief support of the Thebans in this long war, and 
succeeded in rendering the name of their country 
glorious throughout Greece. 

The Theban war lasted sixteen years, and 
though it began merely with an attempt of the 
Thebans to set themselves free from the power of 
the Spartans, yet, before it was ended, the power 
of Thebes was so increased, that it was considered 
able to rival both Athens and Sparta. This was 
entirely owing to Epaminondas and Pelopidas. 
The Athenians assisted them at times, but when 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 273 

they felt that it was necessary for their own interest 
to have peace, they entered into treaty with the 
Spartans, and left the Thebans to themselves. The 
Athenians had not, indeed, much, rea'son to be satis 
fied with the conduct of the Thebans, who attacked 
the allies of Athens without scruple, whenever they 
had any cause of complaint against them. Plataea 
was treated with especial harshness, for the inha- 
bitants, not wishing to become subject to Thebes, 
put themselves under the protection of Athens, 
and were in consequence compelled by the Thebans 
to quit their city, the walls of which were once 
more levelled with the ground. This certainly 
does not appear like the conduct of friends and 
allies, interested in the same cause ; and the fact 
appears to be that the Thebans were becoming 
ambitious, and the Athenians jealous and envious, 
so that it was impossible for them long to remain 
united. 

One of the most celebrated battles of the The- 
bans was fought at a time when the other states 
of Greece had made peace with each other, and the 
Thebans were left to carry on the war with Sparta 
by themselves. They also might have had peace 
if they would have agreed to allow the principal 
towns in Boeotia to be free and independent ; but 
like Athens and Sparta they desired to be chief 
over all others. It maybe said that they had some 
right on their side, for they had long been consider- 
ed supreme in Boeotia. 

The battle before mentioned was fought between 
the Thebans and Spartans at Leuctra, in Boeotia, 
in the year b. c. 371. It was one of the most re- 
markable of the many battles in Greece. The 
Thebans were completely victorious, though the 
Spartans were superior to them in number. Their 
success was chiefly owing to the skilfulness of Epam- 



274 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

inondas, who was one of their commanders, and 
the courage of Pelopidas and the Sacred Band. 
For a long time it was doubtful which side would 
be the conqueror ; but after a great struggle Epam* 
inondas cheered his men by exclaiming " Only 
one step forward," and led them on to victory. 
The Spartan general was killed, together with be- 
tween one and two thousand soldiers, many of whom 
were amongst the chief persons in the state, being 
Spartan citizens and not merely Lacedasmonians. 

The Spartan soldiers could scarcely be brought 
to own that they were defeated, and wished to pre- 
vent their enemies from raising a trophy of victory * 
but their commander saw that it would be unwise 
to attempt any thing of the kind ; and, according 
to the Greek custom of acknowledging that a battle 
was lost, sent a message to Epaminondas begging 
that they might be allowed to bury their slain. 
Epaminondas gave the permission, but insisted that 
the allies of Sparta should carry off their dead first. 
He did this to prevent the Spartans from conceal- 
ing the greatness of their loss ; for when the allies 
came to bury their dead, it was seen how large a 
number of those who were killed were Spartans. 



CHAPTEK XXXIV. 

THE BATTLE OF MANTINEA. 
b. c. 362. 

The messenger who carried to Sparta the account 
of the battle of Leuctra, found the people engaged 
in celebrating one of their great festivals. They 
were assembled in the theatre, and a performance 
was going on. The ephors neither allowed the en- 



HISTOR,Y OF GREECE. 275 

tertainment to be stopped, nor in any way cut short 
the amusements of the day. When the names of 
the slain were given to their friends, the women 
were commanded to refrain from the public wailings 
and lamentations, which were usually considered 
the proper mode of expressing grief; and the only 
persons who showed any open signs of sorrow before 
the strangers assembled at the festival, were the 
relations of the survivors. Those whose friends 
had fallen looked cheerful and hopeful. But in 
spite of all this assumed spirit, the loss of the battle 
of Leuctra was felt to be a great public misfortune. 
The power of Sparta over the other states of Pelo- 
ponnesus was now gone, for so great a defeat had 
shown every one that Spartans were not invincible; 
and the natural consequence was, that those who 
had hitherto submitted to her humbly, began to 
think of making themselves independent. 

The Arcadians were the first to exert them 
selves. Up to this time Arcadia had been divided 
into different districts, or cantons, something like 
the cantons of Switzerland. Now, it was proposed 
to unite these cantons together, as one great state, 
and build a capital city, to be called Megalopolis, 
or the great city ; which was to be peopled by in- 
habitants from the other Arcadian towns ; and in 
which the great council of the nation, consisting of 
ten thousand persons, was to be held. 

Epaminondas and the Thebans entered warmly 
into this scheme, for it seemed very desirable to 
have a state in Peloponnesus sufficiently powerful 
to resist the ambition of Sparta. The Spartans, 
indeed, had great cause for alarm. Enemies were 
springing up all around them. The Arcadians 
assisted the inhabitants of Mantinea to rebuild and 
return to their city, and the Spartans could not 
prevent it ; and when war was declared by them 



276 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

against Mantinea, a whole army of Thebans, with 
numerous allies, marched into Peloponnesus, under 
pretence of protecting Mantinea, and invaded 
Laconia. 

The great object, however, of Epaminondas in 
this expedition was to restore the Messenians, who 
had so often and so long been crushed by the Spar- 
tans, that they had almost ceased to be a distinct 
people. They were scattered over various parts of 
Greece, but Epaminondas now invited them to re- 
turn, and proposed that Ithome, their ancient for- 
tress, should be rebuilt, and that Messenia should 
again become an independent state. 

The surprise and consternation of the Spartanr 
when the army of Epaminondas entered Laconia 
and encamped quite near to Sparta, was beyond 
every thing great. They saw the dwellings, in the 
neighbourhood of the city, which were chiefly villas, 
belonging to rich persons, plundered and destroyed ; 
and they could watch their enemies, as they moved 
along the banks of the river Eurotas, which flowed 
close to Sparta. It was the first time for several 
hundred years — indeed ever since the conquest of 
Peloponnesus by the Dorians — that the fires of an 
enemy's camp had ever been seen from Sparta; 
and the inhabitants had been taught to believe 
that their land could never be invaded, nor their 
city taken. 

The Thebans remained for some days near 
Sparta, hoping to induce the Spartans to engage in 
a regular battle ; . but this they were not willing to 
do, and Epaminondas then thought it would be 
wiser to move further away from the capital. For 
some weeks he and his army ravaged Peloponnesus, 
and during that time Epaminondas, with great 
solemnity, laid the foundation-stone of the city of 
Messene, on the spot where the ancient Ithome had 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 277 

stood. Portions of the buildings which wore then 
begun remain to this day, and all who see them 
speak with surprise and admiration of their size 
and strength, and the solid manner in which the 
stones are put together. 

The restoration of the Messenians to their coun- 
try, and the building of Messene, were considered 
very great works, and many of the Greeks believed 
that Aristomenes, the ancient Messenian hero, had 
foretold them before his death. 

The Spartans, in their distress at the presence 
of an invadiDg army, sent to Athens to beg for 
assistance ; but although aid was granted them it 
did not arrive in time to be of much service. Epam- 
inondas had no intention of remaining long in 
Peloponnesus, and having fulfilled the purpose for 
which he came, he led his troops back to their own 
land, and neither the Spartans nor the Athenians 
were able to stop him. His reward on his return 
was very different from that which might have been 
expected. Some base-minded people were envious 
of his successes, and brought a charge against him, 
and against Pelopidas also, of having kept their 
command as Bceotarchs, three months beyond the 
year, which was the fixed time for that office. Both 
were acquitted, for no one could honestly say that 
they had done any harm. Epaminondas was in- 
different in the matter, and declared himself willing 
to die, if the names of Leuctra, Sparta, and Mes- 
sene, and the deeds by which he was connected 
with them, might be inscribed upon his tomb. 
Pelopidas was more indignant, and exerted himself 
afterwards to have his accusers punished. 

Three times after this first enterprise the The- 

bans, under Epaminondas, invaded Peloponnesus, 

but all things did not continue as favourable to 

their cause as thev were at first. The Athenians 

24 J 



278 HISTORY OF GREECJE. 

openly assisted the Spartans ; the Arcadians wished 
to be first themselves, and so were not anxious to 
increase the power of Thebes ; and the attention 
of Epaminondas was distracted by a new enemy 
who had sprung up in Thessaly. 

Thessaly, like Greece, was originally divided 
into a number of different states and cities, which 
were really independent of each other, though they 
professed sometimes to be united. About this 
time, however, these states had become subject to 
one family, the members of which succeeded each 
other in the government, as if they were kings, or 
rather tyrants, for they were ambitious and cruel. 
The last of this family was such a monster of wick- 
edness, that the people of Thessaly would no longe? 
submit to him. They rebelled, and called in the 
aid of the king of Macedonia, who helped them for 
a short time, but was then obliged to return to his 
own country, which was in a very disturbed state, 
from the many rivals contending for his throne. 

The Thessalians next applied to the Thebans 
for assistance, and obtained it, for Pelopidas was 
sent with an army into Thessaly. There was no 
battle fought, for the tyrant was awed by Pelopi- 
das. and consented to do every thing which was re- 
quired.^ Pelopidas was then summoned to Mace- 
donia, to settle the disputes there, and after having 
successfully arranged all these important matters, 
he went back to Greece. 

But he was not long to remain quiet. The 
tyrant of Thessaly became as cruel as ever, after 
he was left to himself; and when Pelopidas re- 
turned again to Thessaly, hoping one* more to re- 
store peace and happiness to the country, the 
tyrant threw him, and a friend who accompanied 
him, into prison. 

It was then that Epaminondas was obliged to 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 279 

leave the affairs of Peloponnesus, and undeitake an 
expedition into Thessaly to release his friend. This 
was more difficult than might at first have been 
imagined, — for the tyrant was very powerful in his 
own country. — and was moreover assisted by the 
Athenians, — and Thessaly was invaded twice before 
the prisoners were set free. 

Greece at this time appears to have been en- 
tirely distracted by the selfishness of the different 
states. There seems to have been no idea of any 
common interest ; and those who, in former days, 
would have been most indignant at the thought of 
allowing any foreign power to interfere with them, 
now apparently looked upon such help as a matter 
of course. 

Both the Thebans and the Spartans sent am- 
bassadors to Persia to solicit the king's support; 
and Pelopidas himself, after his release from prison. 
was not ashamed to be one of the envoys. 

The Persian king was inclined to favour the 
Thebans, for they had been friendly to Persia for 
many years. He settled with Pelopidas the terms 
of peace which ought to be proposed to the other 
states ; but no one would agree to them, and the 
war went on. 

The Arcadians now thought themselves strong 
enough to be independent of Thebes, and continued 
their contests with Sparta without help. But one 
great battle, in which they were defeated, quite 
crushed them, and destroyed all their prospect of 
being a great and independent state. This battle 
was called the Tearless Battle, because not a single 
Lacedaemonian is said to have been killed in it. 

All this time Epaminondas had been steadily 
working for one great object, — that of making 
Thebes supreme over the other states of Greece ; 
but this object was discovered, and disliked by all 



280 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

persons who wished for the prosperity of Pelopon* 
nesus. They saw that Epaminondas desired to 
make them weak, in order that his own state might 
be strong ; and many, who before dreaded the 
power of Sparta, now were inclined to join with 
her. 

The power of Thebes had risen rapidly, and it 
was destined rapidly to decay. The fourth inva- 
sion of Peloponnesus which Epaminondas under- 
took, put an end to all his plans of greatness. He 
had attacked his enemies several times without 
gaining any decided advantage, and the period for 
which he was given the command of the army was 
nearly over. He could not bear to return home 
without haviog obtained a victory, and when he met 
his enemy's forces near Mantinea, he resolved to 
risk a general battle. His men heard the deter- 
mination with the greatest delight. They burn- 
ished their arms, and adorned themselves as if pre- 
paring for a festival, and went forward eagerly to 
meet their foes. The battle was fought about har- 
vest time, on the 8th of July, b. c. 362. The Spar- 
tans, who were assisted also by the Athenians, were 
not aware of the intentions of the Thebans, and the 
furious attack routed them ; but in the very mo- 
ment of victory Epaminondas received a mortal 
wound. He was borne from the field, and carried 
to a rising ground from which he could overlook 
the scene of battle. Life was fast fleeting, but his 
eye still lighted up with enthusiasm, as he watched 
the movements of his troops. The shaft of the 
spear which had struck him remained in the wound, 
and the agony it caused was terrible ; when it should 
be drawn out, death, he was told, would instantly 
follow. The anguish was endured till the friends 
who stood around him assured him that the tri- 
umph of Thebes was complete. " Then all is well,' 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 281 

ho exclaimed, and calmly drawing forth the weapon 
from his side, he almost immediately expired. 

The character of Epaminondas is one of the 
best which we meet with in history. The struggles 
that he made for his country were begun to rescue 
her from the tyranny of a foreign state ; and if, 
afterwards, he appears to have been too ambitious 
to extend her power, we must remember that all 
around him were striving for the same object for 
themselves ; and that whenever he was able to rule 
others, he did it gently and moderately. Heathen 
nations and heathen men cannot be judged by the 
same rules as Christian states and people. Glory 
was the object they were taught to desire, and no 
one had ever ventured to suggest that the love of 
glory might be a sin. 

Pelopidas died about two years before his friend. 
After his return from Persia he was again obliged 
to go to Thessaly, to defend the people against 
their tyrant, and he was then killed in battle. 
Like Epaminondas, his last contest was a victory, 
and the tyrant of Thessaly was afterwards compel- 
led to submit entirely to the Thebans. 

The Thessalians, in gratitude for the services 
he had rendered them, begged permission from the 
Thebans to bury him in Thessalian ground. 

Agesilaus, king of Sparta, w r ho had been the 
chief opponent of Epaminondas in the Theban war, 
died in the same year. He was eighty years old 
when he undertook an expedition to support some 
rebels, who had raised an insurrection in Egypt 
against the power of the king of Persia ; and it was 
as he was returning home that he died in Africa. 
His constitution must have been naturally very 
strong, for he was capable of bearing immense 
fatigue ; and his habits of life were so simple that 
he never could have injured it by self-indulgence. 



282 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

He was a very honourable, generous, amiable per* 
son ; and one of the strongest features in his char- 
acter was his great affection for his children. A 
friend one day found him riding with them upon a 
hobby-horse, and expressed his surprise that he 
should amuse himself in such a way. But Agesi- 
laus only replied : " Do not speak upon that sub- 
ject until you are a father yourself." 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

COMMENCEMENT OF THE SACRED WAR. 
b. c. 357. 

It has been said that "the virtues of the Athenians 
perished when Epaminondas died," and the saying 
is in a great measure true, not only of Athens, but 
of all Greece. Peace was restored, the Thebans 
being no longer able to keep up the war ; but when 
there ceased to be any call for .great exertion, the 
Greeks, and especially the Athenians, sank into a 
state of indolence and luxury. At home the Athe- 
nians occupied themselves in attending law courts, 
and frequenting theatres ; and when troops were 
wanted in time of war, instead of fighting them- 
selves, they hired soldiers whom they could not 
afford to pay, and who did not in the least care 
whom they fought for, as long as they received their 
money. 

A country in this state was, as it were, ready to 
be conquered by any one ; and though the actual 
downfall of Greece did not take place immediately, 
yet the circumstances which led to it, may be clearly 
perceived after the battle of Mantinea, and the 
death of Epaminondas. At that time the Greeks 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 283 

were celebrated as the most civilized and refined 
people of Europe ; and all who wished to be con- 
sidered superior in mind, and acquirements, tried 
to imitate them. 

Macedonia, a large country to the north of 
Thessaly, was then governed by a king named 
Philip, — a brother of that same monarch who as- 
sisted the Thessalians, before Pelopidas and the 
Thebans were called in to help them. There were 
great disputes in Macedonia when Philip was a 
boy, and Philip himself was sent away from his 
country, and brought up at Thebes ; it is said un- 
der the care of Epaminondas. This naturally led 
him to admire and like the manners, and talents, 
and refinements of the Greeks ; and when, after 
some years, he was restored to his country, and be- 
came king, his most earnest wish was to civilise 
Macedonia, and make it one of the Grecian States ; 
and then to extend its power over all the rest. 
Philip was just the person likely to carry out these 
purposes. He was very quick in understanding 
what was going on around him, very eloquent, and 
particularly clever in bringing other persons round 
to his opinions. Besides which he was in appear- 
ance handsome and dignified, his manners were 
agreeable, and he was strong enough to bear almost 
any fatigue, 

When Philip first began to govern Macedon, he 
was not strictly speaking the king, for there was a 
little infant, his nephew, who was the rightful heir 
and Philip professed to act only as the child's 
guardian. But the kingdom was then in a very 
dangerous condition ; war was springing up all 
round, and there were many claimants for the 
throne; and in this perilous state, the Macedonians 
were not unwilling to set aside the little prince, 
and give the whole power of the government into 



284 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the hands of a powerful monarch. So Philip, whefi 
he was about four and twenty years of age, became 
really king of Macedon without trouble ; and his 
nephew was brought up at his court, and when he 
grew up married one of Philip's daughters. 

The Athenians had been induced to assist one 
of Philip's rivals, but Philip did not wish in conse- 
quence to engage in a war with Athens, for this 
would have been difficult and troublesome. When 
some Athenian troops were taken prisoners by him 
in one of his battles, he treated them with the 
greatest kindness, made them presents, and set 
them at liberty ; and when they returned home, he 
dispatched envoys with them, to say how little he 
wished to be the enemy of the Athenians, and to 
beg for their friendship. The Athenians were much 
flattered by the embassy, and readily agreed to be- 
come the friends of the Macedonian king. But 
they must soon have had cause to suspect Philip's 
sincerity. There was a town in MacedoLia called 
Amphipolis, which had been colonised by the Athe- 
nians. It was a very important place, and one 
which they particularly desired to keep possession 
of; but the people had made themselves indepen- 
dent. Philip had a quarrel with Amphipolis, and 
besieged it ; and when the Athenians were a little 
alarmed at this, he secretly assured them that he 
did not intend to keep it when it was taken, but 
would give it back to them. Amphipolis was taken, 
but Philip thought no more of his promise, and not 
only kept the city he had offered to restore, but 
turned his arms against Pydna, another Athenian 
city, and took that also. Happily for Philip the 
Athenians were at this time so much engaged that 
they were not able to revenge themselves for this 
conduct. Just when Philip was besieging Amphi- 
polis, they were obliged to send troops to the island 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 285 

of Euboea, to assist in quelling some disturbances 
there, and soon afterwards a war, called the Social 
War, broke out, which lasted for three years, and 
fully required all their efforts. 

The cause of this war was the dissatisfaction 
felt by some of the allies of Athens, on the sea 
coast of Asia Minor, and in the islands near. 
Athens was still superior at sea, and professed to 
protect these cities and states : but there was a 
great deal of oppression and injustice in the way in 
which they were treated, and in consequence some 
4f the most powerful declared that they would guard 
themselves, and refused to pay the money which 
Athens required from the cities which she professed 
to take care of. 

A war of course followed, for the Athenians 
would never submit to give up what they considered 
their right. But it was a very unfortunate one. 
They lost their best generals, and spent large sums 
of money, and in the end they were obliged to 
make peace, and allow their revolted allies to be 
independent. 

That same year another war began, known by the 
name of the Sacred War, in which not only Athens, 
but nearly all the states of Greece took part. 

The Sacred War continued for ten years, and 
was carried on with the greatest eagerness and bit- 
terness. It began with a quarrel between Thebes 
and Phocis. who had long been secret enemies, 
though they professed openly to be friends. The 
Thebans accused the Phocians of irreligion and 
irreverence, because they had ploughed up some 
land which was held sacred ; and though they did 
not come forward themselves, they induced the 
Thessalians to bring the charge before the Am- 
phyctionic council, or council of deputies from the 
different states, which met every year to settle re- 



286 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

ligious disputes, and to make regulations for the 
public worship of the temple at Delphi. 

The Phocians were condemned to pay a heavy 
fine, and if they refused, their lands were to be 
seized. The Spartans also were threatened with 
the same punishment, for having neglected to pay a 
fine which had been imposed by the council, when 
the citadel of Thebes — the Cadmea^as it was call- 
ed — was unjustly kept by them. 

Neither the Spartans nor the Phocians took any 
notice of this sentence, and the council of the Am- 
phictyons then summoned all the states of Greece 
to join in putting it into execution. The Athe- 
nians however refused. They sided with Sparta, 
and the Phocians, of course, were joined with them. 
In the old times the Phocians had been considered 
the guardians of the city and the treasures at Del- 
phi ; and now, knowing that whoever had posses- 
sion of the sacred city would be the most likely to 
be victorious in the war, they formed a plan for 
seizing it, together with the treasures of the tem- 
ple. The enterprise succeeded, and this was the 
first step in the war ; which, as far as the Spartans 
were concerned, was carried on chiefly in Pelopon- 
nesus. The Phocians were the most victorious at 
first in the Sacred War, for they had a great deal of 
money from the temple treasures, and could afford 
to hire troops to help them. They had also a skil- 
ful general, named Philomelus; but in the third 
year of the war Philomelus died, and not long 
afterwards a new enemy appeared against them, no 
less a person than Philip, king of Macedon. Philip 
had all this time been extending his power in Thes- 
saly, till he had nearly conquered it, and now he 
found occasion to mix himself up with the Sacred 
War, under pretence of assisting some people in 
Thessaly who were enemies of the Phocians. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 28? 

The interference of Philip was the most impor- 
tant circumstance of the Sacred War. The quar- 
rels of the different states were of no consequence 
in comparison. He was considered the friend and 
ally of all who were opposed to Sparta, Athens, and 
Phocis ; and when a powerful king becomes the ally 
of weak states, it is not at all difficult for him to 
make himself their master. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

THE BATTLE OF CH^RONEA. 
r>. c. 83S. 

The Athenians seem to have taken but little part 
in the Sacred War, till Philip of Macedon interfer- 
ed. Then they were rather alarmed, and began to 
suspect what his real designs were : especially when 
they found that he was still trying to make himself 
master of several towns on the coast of Macedonia 
and Thrace, which had been colonized from Athens, 
or were subject so her. Demosthenes, the orator, 
was the person who first made them perceive their 
danger. Demosthenes was the son of an Athenian 
merchant. In his childhood he was weak and sick- 
ly, and unable to join in the sports of his compan- 
ions ; and this probably may have induced him to 
give up more time to study, since he must have 
known that it would be impossible for him to dis- 
tinguish himself as a soldier, and he had not money 
enough to enable him to be luxurious. To be elo- 
quent was what he most desired, for by that means 
he knew that he should gain great influence over 
his fellow-countrymen. ' But he had few natural 
gifts to make him hopeful of success. His voice 



288 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

was not strong ; he pronounced his words in a way 
that made them difficult to be understood : his 
sentences were confused and unpleasing ; and his 
manners awkward. At the end of his first speech 
in public the people were full of laughter and mur- 
murs ; and yet even then there were some who dis- 
covered his great talents, and were friendly enough 
to encourage him. One old man in particular, it is 
said, who remembered, when a boy, to have heard 
Pericles speak, assured Demosthenes that he re- 
minded him of that great orator. 

But without good instruction and great perse- 
verance, Demosthenes, though he was extremely 
clever, would have failed to obtain his wish. Hap- 
pily for him he had both these advantages. A cele- 
brated player in Athens undertook to correct his 
faults, and Demosthenes listened to him humbly, 
and set himself to work diligently. For a season 
he withdrew from the society of his friends, and prac- 
tised the most difficult and irksome methods to im- 
prove his pronunciation, and make himself graceful ; 
and when he again appeared in public he was pro- 
nounced an unrivalled orator. As a proof of his 
great industry, we are told that he copied out the 
history of Thucydides eight times, in order to im- 
prove himself by the beautiful style in which it was 
written. 

It was this clever unwearied orator who now 
made it his great object to stir up the Athenians to 
resist the power of Philip of Macedon. The speech- 
es which he made upon the subject were called Phi- 
lippics. They were full of energy and wisdom, and 
if the Athenians had possessed the spirit of their 
ancestors, they would doubtless have been incited 
to resist Philip, as they had formerly resisted Darius 
and Xerxes. Philip indeed was powerful, but as 
Demosthenes reminded them. " there was no divin- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 289 

ity about his greatness, to exempt it from the com- 
mon vicissitudes of human affairs. Their tardiness 
and negligence had made Philip powerful, and as 
long as they continued passive, he would continue 
to encroach. It was, therefore, of the utmost im- 
portance that the citizens should not shrink, as they 
had been used to do, from military duty, but begin 
again, in part at least, to fight their own battles ; — 
for the troops which they hired would plunder their 
allies, instead of seeking the enemy ; and if their 
pay was not regularly furnished, would leave them, 
to engage in a more profitable service." 

Demosthenes, besides this advice, gave a plan 
for carrying on the war, and stated how many ships 
should be prepared, and what number of soldiers 
collected. But it is not known what effect exactly 
his instructions had upon the Athenians. They do 
not appear to have had any strong warlike spirit 
remaining ; and indeed, some of the best men 
amongst them despaired of rousing the people to 
energy, and thought it would be wiser to make the 
best terms they could with Philip, and keep him as 
their friend, even if he were to be their master. 
Phocion, an orator almost as celebrated as Demos- 
thenes, was one of the persons who took this view 
of public affairs. He was an upright, and benevo- 
lent, but stern-mannered man, who despised luxury, 
and hated flattery : yet even he could see no hope 
of successfully resisting the growing power of Philip 
of Macedon. 

Demosthenes, it is said, quite trembled for the 
effect of his own speeches, whenever Phocion rose 
to address the people after him, and used to whisper 
to his friends : " Here comes the hatchet to my 
speech." 

The Sacred War continued till the year b. c. 346. 
No one obtained any advantage from it, ex^pt 
25 



290 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Philip, who went on steadily gaining more and more 
influence in Greece, — assisting one state against 
another, and so making himself lord of both ; whilst 
at the same time he contrived to deceive every one. 
The Athenians did at last rouse themselves in con- 
sequence of the speeches of Demosthenes, and called 
upon all the states of Greece to assist in opposing 
Philip, but no one would move ; Philip had bribed 
them to be still, and even the Athenians were 
soothed for a time by the professions of friendly 
feeling which were made to them. It was Philip 
who was allowed to settle the terms of peace, 
when the Greeks grew tired of the Sacred War, 
and wished it to be brought to a close. The 
Phocians were as willing as the other states to 
allow of his interference, for he had promised to 
exert himself on their behalf with the council of 
the Amphictyons ; but they found themselves 
grievously disappointed. Philip did nothing for 
them, and the council insisted upon a most cruel 
sentence against Phocis, which was carried into 
execution by Theban and Macedonian troops. 
Twenty-two towns' were utterly destroyed ; ten 
thousand captive Phocians were carried away to 
distant colonies ; and the poor people who remained 
were obliged to cultivate the desolate country, in 
order to raise a large sum of money, which was to 
be paid to the temple at Delphi. 

The Phocians were also declared to be no longer 
members of the Amphictyonic league, and Philip of 
Macedon stepped into their place, and had two 
votes. He also claimed to be the guardian of the 
city and temple at Delphi, and was made president 
of the Pythian games, instead of the Corinthians, 
who had assisted the Phocians, and so were thought 
unworthy of the honour. 

But Philip was not to be permitted thus to rule 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 291 

Greece, without one effort being made aga.nsthim. 
Now that he was a member of the Amphictyonic 
league, the council of the Amphicytyons looked to 
him for support ; and a few years after the end of 
the Sacred War, he was appointed by them to be 
the commander-in-chief of their forces, and to put 
in execution a decree which they had passed against 
the inhabitants of a small state accused of an act of 
profanation. 

Philip readily consented, for in fact he had been 
secretly working to bring about this quarrel, hoping 
to gain some advantage from it. But not contented 
with merely upholding the decree of the Amphic- 
tyons, he raised a much larger army than was ne- 
cessary, and took possession of some towns over 
which he had no right. This act excited general 
indignation. Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, with 
many of the smaller states, joined in one body 
against him; — others, who were favourable to 
Philip, refused to aid him, that they might not be 
called upon to fight against their own countrymen ; 
but Sparta and several of the Peloponnesian states 
took no part in the quarrel. A battle was fought 
in the plain of Chgeronea, in Boeotia, in the year 
b. c. 338, but it was fatal to the freedom of Greece. 
The Athenians had been long unaccustomed to war, 
and had no generals of any distinction ; whilst the 
Macedonians were skilled in battle, and encouraged 
by the command of their king, and the presence of 
his son, the young prince Alexander. 

The Thebans, it is said, kept their ground the 
longest. The Sacred Band fougnt to the last, and 
were cut off to a man. Demosthenes was amongst 
those who were engaged in the battle, and has been 
called a coward because he left the field ; but he 
fled only when others did, and when all hope of 
victory was over. 



292 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

The battle of Chaeronea made Philip of Mace- 
don the lord of Greece, for all now dreaded to op- 
pose him. Yet he used his power gently. He even 
refused to listen to those advisers who would have 
persuaded him to treat Athens severely, saying : — 
" that they would have him destroy the theatre of 
his glory." All he required was, that the island of 
Samos should be given up to him, and that deputies 
should be sent the next year to a general meeting 
of the Greeks at Corinth. The government of 
Athens, he said, should remain as it had been be- 
fore. Thebes was treated more hardly, and the 
states of Peloponnesus were obliged to submit to 
his arrangement of all their affairs, — not even Spar- 
ta daring to resist, though she professed to be free. 

In the spring of the next year the deputies of 
all the Greek states, except Sparta, met on the 
Isthmus of Corinth at Philip's command. There 
the king announced to them the great object of 
his ambition, which he declared to be the conquest of 
Persia. They were to assist in it, and he was to 
be their general r with unlimited power. Such a 
proposal was in fact a command. But another 
year passed before the plan was ready to be put in 
execution ; and before that year was over, Philip's 
schemes of earthly glory were in one moment ended 
for ever. 

He was celebrating a festival, — the marriage of 
his favourite daughter with the king of Epirus. 
The city of iEgea, the ancient capital of Mace- 
donia, was crowded with strangers ;• — not only 
guests of the king, but envoys from the leading 
states of Greece bearing presents of crowns of gold 
for the mighty monarch. The marriage was cele- 
brated, and a banquet followed. Philip desired a 
player who was present to recite some piece of 
poetry, suited to the approaching expeditioc against 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 293 

the Persians. The man obeyed, and sang of power, 
luxury, pride, and wealth, but he spoke also of that 
death which '"'' approaching unseen by hidden paths 
cuts oif in an instant man's brightest hopes." On 
the morrow an entertainment was to take place in 
the theatre ; spectators assembled at an early hour, 
and the building was crowded. A solemn proces- 
ion advanced, bearing twelve images of the gods, 
with another representing the king, who himself 
followed, dressed in white robes, and a festal chaplet 
on his head. 

The shouts of the multitude hailed his approach. 
At that moment a young man stepped forth from 
the crowd, drew a sword from beneath his garments, 
plunged it into the king's side, — and Philip of 
Macedon fell dead. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

THE INVASION OF PERSIA BY ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
B. 0. 334. 

The news of Philip's death reached Athens when 
Demosthenes was mourning for the loss of an only 
daughter, who had died about seven clays before. 
But all private sorrow gave way to the delight 
which the great orator felt at the thought that 
Greece was now freed from her dangerous master. 
Although the customs of his country required that 
he should still perform funeral rites for his child, 
he no sooner learnt that Philip was dead, than he 
dressed himself in white, placed a wreath on his 
head, and with a joyful countenance performed a 
solemn sacrifice at one of the public altars. The 
people shared his joy, — but they had little real 



294 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

oause to congratulate themselves ; Philip indeed 
was dead ; but the son who succeeded him inherited 
his ambition and his talents, and was destined to 
be the lord not of Greece only, but of the greater part 
of the known world. 

From his childhood the young prince, Alexan- 
der, had shown the spirit of one born to rule. 
When he was quite a boy, a splendid horse, called 
Bucephalus, was sent from Thessaly to his father, 
Philip, which proved so unmanageable that Philip 
proposed to return it. Alexander, hearing this, 
asked permission to try his skill in taming the ani- 
mal. He went up to it, soothed it with his voice, 
stroked it gently, and turned it from the sun, so 
that it might not see its own shadow, which had 
frightened it, and then, springing upon its back, and 
giving it the rein, galloped away, and returned 
safely. When he brought back the horse, perfectly 
tamed, it is said that Philip shed tears of joy, and, 
embracing Alexander, exclaimed, " My son, seek a 
kingdom more worthy of thee, for Macedon is below 
thy merit." Yet Alexander and his father were 
not friends in after years. Philip, who was married 
several times, treated his wife, the mother of Alex- 
ander, with disrespect , and she, being a woman of 
a fierce temper, encouraged her son almost to rebel 
against his father. Alexander always suspected 
that Philip wished to prevent him from succeeding 
to the throne, but there does not seem to have been 
any real cause for such an idea ; and certainly 
Philip did not at all neglect his son, but gave him 
an education fit for a prince who was to rule over a 
powerful kingdom. 

Aristotle, the philosopher, was his tutor. He 
was a native of Stagira, a town in Macedonia, and 
as celebrated for his wisdom as Alexander after- 
wards was for his conquests. Whilst Philip of 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 295 

Macedon was brought up at Thebes, Aristotle was 
living at Athens. There had been some connec- 
tion between them before, for the father of Aris- 
totle was physician to Philip's father ; but it was 
in Greece that they formed the friendship which 
lasted even when Philip became king. It seems 
that Philip fixed upon Aristotle to be the tutor of 
his son, as soon as the young prince was born ; for 
we are told that in the letter in which he informed 
Aristotle of the birth of his child, he added, " that 
he thanked the gods less for the son they had given 
him, than that he had been born when he might 
have Aristotle for his teacher." Alexander had 
the greatest possible reverence for his tutor, and 
used to say of him " that he loved him no less than 
his father; for to the one he owed life, to the 
other the art of living. 57 In his outward appearance 
Aristotle would not have excited much admiration, 
for he was short and slight ; he had small eyes, 
and rather a sarcastic expression of countenance, 
and lisped when he spoke. Much of his wisdom 
was derived from Socrates. He was not taught by 
that great man himself, but he was a pupil of Plato, 
a philosopher who was one of the chief friends that 
Socrates had ; and who taught publicly in Athens 
after Socrates was dead. Aristotle and Plato had 
different opinions upon many very important sub- 
jects, but they both believed in the existence of 
one Great God, the Lord of all in Heaven and 
earth. Aristotle knew a great deal about natural 
history aiid medicine, and the wonderful things 
which are seen in nature. His History of Animals 
is one of his most excellent works. Plato thought 
and taught more of the things which concern the 
human mind. Aristotle returned to Athens after 
he had instructed Alexander, and used to deliver 
lectures whilst walking up and down the shady 



296 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

walks which surrounded the Lyceum. His scholars 
were, from this circumstance, called Peripatetics, 
which meant persons who walked about. Plato 
travelled a good deal, and when he was at Athens 
gave lectures in a place called the Academy, which 
was something like the Lyceum. 

When Philip of Macedon died, Alexander was 
only twenty years of age, but even then he was 
more fit to be a king than many sovereigns who 
have reigned for years. He was noble, generous, 
brave, energetic, and affectionate ; and, though 
glory and conquest were his great object, we must 
not so much blame him for his ambition, as make 
allowance for his education. His father, Philip, 
had striven for years to increase his dominions, and 
the persons who surrounded Alexander from in- 
fancy had encouraged his natural love of warlike 
fame. Even Aristotle does not seem to have 
checked him, though he must soon have perceived 
the object which his pupil had most at heart. 
When ambassadors from Persia came to Mace- 
donia whilst Philip was living, Alexander asked no 
questions concerning the splendour of the Persian 
court, the beauty of the hanging gardens, the luxu- 
ries and enjoyments of the great monarch : he 
inquired only what was the state of his army, the 
condition of the country, what the distances were 
from one place to another, and whqther the roads 
were good ; and the ambassadors returned home, 
more alarmed at the open ambition of Alexander, 
than the cunning wisdom of his father. 

And now that Philip was dead, no obstacle re- 
mained to prevent Alexander from indulging his 
desire of glory. He was at once acknowledged 
king of Macedon ; and although Demosthenes en- 
deavoured to stir up the Greeks to a last effort for 
freedom, they remembered too well their defeat at 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 297 

Chseronea, to be easily roused to rebellion against 
a prince so powerful. They did, after a time, plan 
a revolt, but Alexander no sooner heard of it than 
he marched into Greece himself, and so awed the 
different states by his presence, that, instead of op- 
posing him, they only thought how best to appease 
his anger. In this way every thing seemed to 
yield to him ; and when a meeting of deputies from 
the Grecian states, like that which Philip had 
before assembled, was held at Corinth, he was de- 
clared commander-in-chief of the Grecian forces, by 
the consent of every state except Sparta. 

It was in vain to think of resistance whilst 
Alexander lived, but soon after the meeting at 
Corinth, whilst the king was absent upon an expe- 
dition against the countries to the north and west 
of Macedonia, a report was spread that he was dead. 
The Thebans and Athenians instantly determined 
to set themselves free from the power of Maeedon. 
War was declared against that country, but in an 
incredibly short space of time Alexander, whom 
all supposed to be dead, appeared with his army 
before the gates of Thebes. The city was taken 
by storm, the walls were razed to the ground, the 
inhabitants were sold for slaves, and only the tem- 
ples, and one house, that of Pindar, the Theban 
poet, were spared. 

This destruction was in a great measure caused 
by some Greek allies of Alexander, who were 
ancient enemies of Thebes, and persuaded the 
Macedonian king to treat the inhabitants thus 
harshly. But it was a terrible warning to the 
rest of Greece, and the Athenians, when they heard 
of it, lost no time in sending ambassadors to beg 
for mercy. Alexander treated them kindly: he 
had no wish to make enemies who might rise up 
against him whilst he was in Asia ; for it was that 



298 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

country which was still the object of his ambition 
The great project of the invasion of Persia was 
constantly in his mind, as it had been in that of 
his father, and at last the time arrived when he 
might undertake it. 

In the spring of the year b.c. 334. he crossed 
the Hellespont, and landed in Asia with an army 
of about 30,000 foot soldiers and 5000 horsemen, 
and with only a small sum of money ; — his treasures 
having been divided amongst his friends before he 
set out. They were but slight preparations, com- 
pared with those which Xerxes had made for the 
conquest of Greece ; but Alexander had a confident 
spirit, and when he was asked what, amongst all his 
treasures, he had kept for himself, his answer was 
"hope." 

In the whole of Alexander's army there were 
only about 7000 Greeks, so that the account of his 
conquests can scarcely be considered as belonging 
to the history of Greece ; but it may be as well 
shortly to describe them, as they are so universally 
celebrated. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

THE BATTLE OF ISSUS. 
b. c. 333. 

Persia was governed by a king named Darius Co- 
domanus, who was a member of the royal family, 
though not the son of the last king, and had been 
raided to the throne by the influence of one of the 
great Persian officers. Darius Codomanus was a 
man of considerable talent, and much beloved ; but 
though the kings of Persia possessed an immense 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 299 

empire, the different provinces were nearly inde- 
pendent of their sovereign, and would seldom unite 
together for any one purpose ; so that in fact Darius 
had less real power than many princes whose domin- 
ions have been less extensive. 

He was, however, able to raise great armies, and 
when the news of the approach of the Macedonians 
reached him, he sent a large force, under an ex- 
perienced officer, to oppose Alexander ; and pre- 
pared himself to follow. But Alexander's success 
began at the very opening of his expedition, for the 
Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor were all 
favourable to him, and he had but to march from 
one to the other and receive their suomission. The 
first battle with the Persians was fought on the 
banks of the Granicus, a little river of Mysia, which 
flowed into the Propontis, or sea of Marmora. 
Alexander was completely victorious, and before 
the Persian army could recover from their defeat, 
their general was seized with a fatal disease and 
died, and no one was left able at that moment to 
take his place. The Macedonian king passed on 
through Asia Minor, overcoming every difficulty, 
and at length reached Gordium, the ancient capital 
of Phrygia. In this city an incident took place 
which gave rise to a proverb in common use in 
these days. In very early times, when there were 
great disturbances in Phrygia, an oracle had in- 
formed the people who were holding a public 
assembly, that a waggon would bring them a king, 
who should at the same time put an end to all 
their troubles. Directly afterwards Midas, the son 
of Gordius, a poor peasant, appeared, coming in 
his waggon to the assembly, with his father and 
mother. All present instantly acknowledged him 
as their king, and Gordius, being very grateful 



300 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

dedicated the waggon as a thank-offering to the 
god Zeus. 

The pole of this waggon was fastened to the yoke 
by a knot of bark, and there was a prophecy, gene- 
rally believed amongst -the people, that whoever 
should untie the knot would be the lord of Asia. 
When Alexander came to Gordium, he took care 
to prove that the prophecy related to himself, for he 
drew his sword and cut the knot in two. And from 
this circumstance has arisen the saying of " cutting 
the Gordian knot" when a person finds himself in a 
difficulty, and gets out of it not by patience, but by 
some hasty action. But Darius was not willing that 
Alexander should make himself lord of Asia without 
a further struggle. At Babylon, half a million of 
men were collected, under the command of the king 
of Persia himself ; and as Alexander advanced into 
the country, the two armies met at the pass oflssus, 
leading from Cilicia into Syria. It was a most fatal 
battle for the Persians. Their army was routed ; 
Darius fled, and his mother, his wife, and his chil- 
dren were taken prisoners. The conduct of Alex- 
ander on this occasion does him more honour than 
all his victories. When he heard the princesses 
lamenting in their tent over Darius, whom they 
supposed to be dead, he immediately sent one of his 
great officers to tell them that the Persian monarch 
had fled away in safety ; and to assure them that he 
desired to treat them with the honours due to their 
high station, and had no wish to deprive them of 
any of the ornaments which they valued. 

After the battle of Tssus, Alexander proceeded 
onwards to Damascus, which was betrayed to him 
by the Persian governor. There he found a trea- 
sure which had been left by Darius, consisting of 
money, splendid dresses belonging to the king 
and his nobles, and other valuables, sufficent to 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 301 

load seven thousand beasts of burden. There were 
also in Damascus a number of Persian ladies of 
high rank, with their children and servants ; and 
several hundred persons of the lower classes, — 
cooks, confectioners, perfumers, chaplet weavers, 
music girls, and others, who were appointed to wait 
upon Darius, and provide him with the luxuries he 
had been accustomed to enjoy ; all these now be- 
longed to Alexander. 

The unfortunate Darius, alarmed at such rapid 
success, began to think of peace. Messengers were 
sent to remonstrate with Alexander upon his inva* ' 
sion of Persia, and to inform him that it was the 
wish of Darius to become his friend and ally ; and 
humbly to entreat that the mother, the wife, and the 
children of the Persian king, might be restored to 
him. 

The answer of Alexander was full of the pride of 
a conqueror. " Darius," he said, " might, himself, 
have come to him as to the lord of Asia. He would 
promise him safety, and he might then ask with con- 
fidence for his mother, wife, children, and what- 
ever else he could desire. In future Darius must 
address him as the king of Asia, in the style not of 
an equal, but of a subject ; or he must expect to be 
treated as an enemy. If, however, the question of 
sovereignty were disputed, they may try the event 
of another contest. Darius might rest assured that 
Alexander would seek him wherever he might be 
found." 

This reply, of course, caused the continuance of 
the war. Darius began to collect another army, 
and Alexander proceeded to Tyre which he beseiged 
for seven months. This city, famous for its riches 
and the trade which its inhabitants carried on with 
distant countries, stood on an island about half a 
mile from the main land. It was considered almost 
26 



302 HISTORY OF GKEECE. 

impossible to take it, but Alexander commanded a 
mole, or causeway, to be raised across the strait so 
that his troops might approach the walls : and when 
that was destroyed by the Tyrians, who set fire to 
some wooden towers which were built upon it, he 
gave orders for another to be begun ; and at length, 
with the help of ships, brought from Sidon, the 
city was surrounded, the walls were broken down, 
and Tyre, which is described in the Bible as " full 
of wisdom, and perfect in beauty," was cast to the 
ground.* 

There were two cities called Tyre ; and the de- 
struction of both was foretold, long before it took 
place, by the prophet Ezekiel. The ancient city stood 
on the main-land, and was destroyed by Nebuchad- 
nezzar king of Babylon ; and it was from these 
ruins that Alexander took the materials which he 
used to form a causeway when he besieged Tyre on 
the island. This circumstance is particularly fore- 
told by the prophet when he says of the first Tyre, 
" They shall lay thy stones, and thy timber, and thy 
dust in the midst of the water." "I will also scrape 
her dust from her." " Though thou shalt be sought 
for, yet shalfc thou never be found again." (Ezekiel, 
xxvi. 4. 12. 21.) 

Darius now again sent ambassadors to Alexander. 
They offered the Macedonian monarch an enormous 
sum of money, the provinces to tke west of the river 
Euphrates, and the daughter of Darius to be his 
wife. Alexander informed his council of these pro- 
posals, Parmenio, his most trusted general, de- 
clared that if he were Alexander ho should accept 
them. "So should I," replied the king, "were 1 
Parmenio." His love of conquest was in no way 
satisfied by the successes he had obtained, and his 

Ezekiel xxyiii. 12 — 17. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 303 

reply to Darius was proud as it had been before. 
" The gold and the land which were offered him 
were," he said, " already his own ; nor would he ac- 
cept a part of his treasures, or his empire, instead of 
the whole. If he chose to marry the princess, he did 
not need her fathers consent. If Darius desired to 
receive his favour, he must come in person as a 
suppliant." 

Darius gave up all hope of peace, and Alexander 
proceeded on his victorious course. From Tyre he 
proceeded to Gaza, and from thence marched north- 
ward to Jerusalem. Palestine was at that time 
subject to Persia ; and the high priest of the Jews, 
who was also their governor, had refused to assist 
Alexander with troops and provisions, when he was 
besieging Tyre. Alexander was determined to re- 
venge himself for this refusal ; but as he approached 
the city, we are told by the Jewish historian Jose- 
phus, that he was met by the greater number of the 
inhabitants, dressed in white festival robes ; with the 
Priests, and Levites, and the High Priest at their 
head, in their sacred garments. As the procession 
advanced Alexander was struck with awe. The 
figure of the High Priest reminded him of one which 
he had before seen in a dream that he was little 
likely to forget, for in it he was promised success in 
his vast enterprise. Instead of receiving the High 
Priest as his enemy, the king went forward alone to 
meet him. and bent before him. He was convinced 
now that the God whom the Jews served was a 
God of Might: arid, accompanying the High Priest 
to the temple, he sacrificed there according to the 
Jewish rites ; and, after bestowing gifts upon the 
Priests, and granting privileges to the nation, he 
left Jerusalem and proceeded on his way to Egypt. 
That country at once submitted to him, for the people 
hated the Persians, and longed to throw off their 



304 HISTORY ^F GREECU. 

yoke ; and then it was that Alexander founded a citjj 
to which he gave the name of Alexandria, desiring 
that it should carry his remembrance to the most 
distant ages. 

Leaving Egypt he advanced further into Africa, 
across pathless sands, and under a burning sky, till, 
in the midst of the desert of Lybia, he reached a 
green, pleasant, watered valley, where, enclosed by 
woods, stood the temple of the Egyptian god 
Ammon. 

The oracle of Ammon was greatly celebrated, 
and Alexander desired to visit it, that he might 
inquire whether his enterprises were likely to suc- 
ceed, and if they were according to the will of the 
god. We do not know the exact questions he ask- 
ed, nor the answers he received ; but no doubt the 
priests flattered him, and said what they knew 
would please him ; for Alexander, on leaving the 
temple, gave offerings for the service of the god, 
and assured his followers that he was well satisfied 
with all that he had heard. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

THE BATTLE OF ARBELA, OR GAUGAMELA, 
b. c. 330. 

Having now secured the countries subject to 
Darius, Alexander's next wish was to return and 
complete the conquest of Persia itself. He accord- 
ingly left Egypt, passed again through Palestine 
and Phoenicia, and met Darius in Assyria near the 
river Tigris. The battle which was there fought 
is generally called the battle of Arbela, though in 
fact it took place at a distance of fifty miles from 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 305 

that place. The Persian king had by this time 
collected a vast host, consisting not of luxurious 
Persians, but of hardy mountaineers, from the 
borders of the Caspian Sea, and the distant con- 
fines of India. Powerful bodies of horsemen, 
scythed chariots, and even elephants, were brought 
to oppose the great conqueror of Asia ; but no 
preparation disturbed the security of Alexander. 
After surveying his enemy's forces, and making his 
own arrangements the evening before the battle, he 
slept as peacefully as if secure from every danger ; 
and when Parmenio roused him in the morning, 
and expressed surprise that he should have rested 
as well at such a moment as if he had gained a 
victory, Alexander replied, " Is it not as good as a 
victory to have overtaken the enemy ?" 

The feelings of Darius were very different. 
Being afraid that Alexander would attack him 
during the night, he made his troops remain under 
arms in order of battle ; and though he visited them 
by torch-light, and tried to cheer them, yet, when 
the morning came, he found them wearied and dis- 
pirited. Their sad anticipations were soon realised 
when the battle began. Though the Persians fought 
very bravely, the Macedonians were so much better 
trained, that it was impossible to withstand them. 
One body, called the Macedonian phalanx, it was 
almost impossible to overcome. It consisted of a 
large body of men, who stood one behind another 
with long spears. Those spears reached so far be- 
fore them, that the«pear of a man who was the sixth 
from the front could still project beyond his com- 
rade in the first line. Thus the front ranks were 
defended, on all sides, by those who were behind 
them ; and when they all moved forward together, 
their power was too great for ordinary soldiers, 
however brave, to resist. 



306 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

It was the phalanx which completely routed ths 
Persians at the battle of Arbela. 'The shock of its 
attack spread fear and disorder amongst the enemy ; 
and Darius, finding himself in danger, alighted 
from his chariot, and mounting a fleet horse which 
was kept in readiness for him, fled from the field 
of battle. His family were still left in the power 
of Alexander ; but the queen, who was the most 
beautiful woman in Asia, had died many months 
before. It is said that when Darius heard of the 
noble way in which she had been treated, and the 
splendid funeral which his enemy had ordered for 
her, he lifted up his hands to heaven, and prayed 
that, if his kingdom was to pass from himself, it 
might be transferred to Alexander. That prayer 
was now to be granted. Darius, indeed, was in 
safety, but his power was gone. From Arbela 
Alexander marched to Babylon, and for a short 
time his soldiers were permitted to rest, and enjoy 
all the splendour and luxury of that great city. 
From Babylon he proceeded to Susa, where still 
greater treasures were in store for him, — gold and 
silver to an immense amount uncoined, and dresses, 
so rich and valuable, that the wardrobe of one of 
the chief officers alone was deemed a present fit for 
Alexander's favourite Parmenio. 

Soon after his arrival at Babylon, fresh troops 
arrived from Europe. With them came fifty noble 
Macedonian boys, who were to be the king's pages ; 
besides a present, sent to Alexander from his 
sisters, of some articles of dress which they had 
made themselves, — a work which the Persian ladies 
would have thought it a disgrace to undertake. 

Sisygambis, the mother of Darius, and her grand- 
children, were left at Susa, in their own palace, 
whilst Alexander advanced further through the 
Persian dominions. The distant provinces had 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 307 

never been entirely subject to Darius, and they 
were now inclined to rebel against Alexander ; but 
the very sight of the Macedonian soldiers filled 
them with terror, and those who came out, prepar- 
ed to resist, fled as Alexander drew near. 

Persepolis was his next object, a place even 
richer than Babylon and Susa ; for the treasures 
collected there by the Persian monarchs were sel- 
dom touched. A number of Greeks met him at 
this place, who had been transported thither from 
Asia Minor, and, as a punishment for some offence 
they had committed, had been barbarously mutilated. 
This sight naturally caused the anger of Alexander ; 
but the revenge which he took was a disgrace to 
him. One evening, after drinking largely at a 
banquet till he lost his reason, he was persuaded 
by a wicked woman, named Thais, who was present, 
that it would be a glorious thing to show his indig- 
nation by setting fire to the royal palace. Alexander 
started up, half in jest and half in earnest, and 
seizing a torch, led the way to the palace, and 
threw the brand into the splendid building. The 
flames spread rapidly and widely ; and Alexander, 
repenting of his mad act, gave orders that the fire 
should be stopped. But the mischief which his 
folly had caused could not be repaired. The 
palace was not, indeed, burnt to the ground, but 
its splendour was entirely destroyed. 

Whilst Alexander was thus making his way 
through the country, Darius had fled to E-cbatana. 
He seems to have had little thought of again 
raising an army, and probably intended to retreat 
from the country entirely, and seek for refuge on 
the other side of the Oxus, a river which flowed 
between the provinces of Sogdiana and Bactria, to 
the north-east of Persia, and fell into the Caspian 
Sea. 



308 HISTORY OF GREECE, 

But he was not destined to live in security, 
One of his own officers, named Bessus, became a 
traitor to him, seized him, chained him, and then 
took all authority upon himself. 

Alexander heard what had been done, and set 
out in pursuit of the rebel. His approach caused 
the greatest consternation to Bessus and his follow- 
ers. They determined to flee, and pressed Darius 
to mount a horse and accompany them. 

The unfortunate king, however, trusted mere to 
the mercy of Alexander than to that of his false 
subjects. He refused, and the conspirators then 
wounded him mortally, and left him in his chariot. 

He died before Alexander saw him. The noble 
spirit of the Macedonian king was deeply touched 
with the misfortunes of his rival. He threw his 
own cloak over the dead body of Darius, and or- 
dered that he should be buried in the sepulchre of 
his ancestors, with the magnificence suited to a 
monarch. He afterwards took charge of the edu- 
cation of his children, and married his daughter. 



CHAPTER XL. 

ALEXANDER. DEFEATS PORUS. 
B. c. 325. 

Alexander was now, in the eyes of the Persians, 
their lawful monarch ; or at least they were willing 
to acknowledge him as such ; for it was seldom that 
the throne of Persia descended peaceably from the 
father to the son ; and, though the kings were gen- 
erally members of one family, yet they often gained 
their power by bloodshed and rebellion. 

But Alexander was not yet at liberty to rest, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 309 

sven if lie had desired it, for Bessus, who bad re- 
belled against Darius, was still in arms. Alexan- 
der pursued him through the countries bordering 
on the Caspian Sea, and at last took him prisoner ; 
and, after making him stand with a clog round his 
neck in the road by which the army passed, he 
caused him to be scourged, and then placed him in 
the custody of some relations of Darius, by whose 
wish he was afterwards tortured and killed in the 
most cruel manner. 

It was during this expedition that Alexander 
allowed himself to be led into an action which must 
always be a stain upon his name. Accusations of 
treason were brought against his faithful general, 
Parmenio. They were unproved, but Alexander 
gave way to suspicion, and most cruelly and un- 
justly caused Parmenio's son, whom he disliked, to 
be tortured, in order to obtain some evidence 
against Parmenio himself. The son was executed, 
and sentence of death was passed upon Parmenio, 
who was then absent. This sentence was carried 
out very treacherously. A letter was dispatched to 
him, forged in the name of the son who had just 
been killed ; and, whilst he was reading it, the offi- 
cers who brought it fell upon him and slew him, 
and then carried his head to the king. Several 
other persons were accused of being concerned in 
this conspiracy ; it is supposed, in consequence of 
the jealous spirit of Olympias, Alexander's mother, 
whom he had left behind him in Europe, and who, 
it is known, often tried to make him distrust his 
officers. Alexander was excessively fond of his 
mother, though he did not like her to be regent of 
Macedonia, fearing her proud, hasty temper. As 
it was, she often interfered with the regent Anti- 
pater, and Antipater wrote complaints of her to 
Alexander ; but the king's love for his mother was 



310 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

stronger than his anger at her behaviour, and he 
was once heard to say that Antipater did not know 
how soon ten thousand letters were blotted out by 
a single tear of a mother. Alexander had now no 
more enemies to fear, but his desire for conquest 
was still unsatisfied. From the countries near the 
Caspian Sea, he marched with his army, through 
the midst of barbarous lands and warlike tribes, 
till he reached the north-west of India, known to 
us by the name of Affghanistan. Wherever he 
passed he was a conqueror. But, although he could 
subdue others, he could not always subdue himself; 
and about this time we are told of a most fatal 
burst of rage to which he gave way, when intoxi- 
cated at a banquet. An officer, the brother of his 
nurse, who had been his playfellow in childhood, 
and had once preserved his life, offended him by 
some provoking language ; and Alexander seized a 
spear, from a soldier who was standing by, and 
thrust it through the body of his former friend. 
He had no sooner committed the deed than his 
reason returned ; he retired to his chamber, threw 
himself on his bed in an agony of grief, and for 
three days refused to eat, or listen to any comfort. 
Now, as before, when he set fire to the palace at 
Persepolis, repentance came too late ; though he 
might have learnt, from all he suffered, the terrible 
consequences of the habit of excessive drinking, 
which, it seems, was common at that time, and 
which deprived those who indulged in it of all self- 
command. 

The conquest of India, which was at this period 
undertaken, had long been a great object with 
Alexander. The country was little known ; but 
it was believed to be of immense extent, and to 
abound in wonders and riches. At the battle of 
Arbela 5 the Greeks for the first time saw elephants, 



HISTORY OF GREECE 311 

which had been brought from the banks of the 
Indus, and the sight of these enormous and power- 
ful animals no doubt increased their desire to visit 
the land from whence they came. 

The greatest resistance which the Macedonians 
experienced in India was from a king who had a 
number of these animals in his army. Alexander 
had advanced victoriously through Afghanistan, 
passing through a city built on the same spot as 
that which we call Cabul, where, in the year 1842, 
the English were cruelly massacred by the Aff- 
ghans ; and, as he went on, some of the natives 
opposed him, and others were willing to become 
his allies, and in either case he made himself their 
lord. Bat, after crossing the Indus, he was met 
by Porus, an Indian prince, who proudly defied his 
power, and collected an army to withstand him, in 
which there were between two and three hundred 
elephants. Porus trusted much to the fear which 
he thought the Macedonians would have of these 
animals ; and for a time it seemed as if even the 
phalanx could not stand against them. At last, 
however, the poor animals, being wounded, became 
quite frantic, and turned in fury upon their Indian 
masters, as well as upon the Macedonians. Many 
were killed, and the rest were quite exhausted ; 
and the army of Porus, having lost the help upon 
which it chiefly depended, was completely routed. 
Porus, hopeless of escape, gave himself up to Alex- 
ander. When brought into the king's presence, 
and allowed to name the requests which he wished 
to have granted, his only reply was, " that he de- 
sired to be treated as a king." Alexander observed 
" that this was no more than a king must do for 
his own sake," and bade him make some request 
for himself. But Porus declined. " All that he 
wished," he said, "was included in this." 



312 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

Alexander restored him his kingdom, and even 
added to it large dominions. Probably, besides 
admiring the dignity of the Indian prince, he was 
anxious to make him his friend, so that he might 
not always have cause to fear rebellion in these 
distant provinces. The country which was thus 
placed under the government of Porus is that now 
called the Punjaub. 

The notions of Alexander as to the geography 
of the countries he had been passing through were 
very strange. When he found crocodiles in the 
Indus, he fancied that this river was a branch of 
the Nile ; and in a letter, which he wrote to his 
mother, he told her that he thought he had discov-i 
ered the land which contained the springs of the 
Nile. But as he travelled on he must have begun 
to suspect his mistake. He was still ignorant of 
the vast extent of country which lay beyond the 
Indus, but reports were brought of a powerful 
monarch, who dwelt on the other side of the Gan- 
ges ; and although Alexander himself was only the 
more anxious to proceed, his Macedonian soldiers 
were by this time weary of the hardships they had 
endured. When they reached the banks of the 
river Zaradrus, now called the Sutlej, a general 
murmur arose amongst them. They could see no 
3nd to these distant expeditions, and their thoughts 
turned with an intense longing to their homes. 
The officers felt with the men, and one of them un- 
dertook to represent to Alexander all they were 
suffering, and to entreat him to give up his design. 
A speech was accordingly made to the king, setting 
forth the wishes of his soldiers. Alexander listened 
to what was said, and then retired angrily to his 
tent ; and the next day, assembling his army, in- 
formed them that he would not force any one to 
accompany him, but that he was quite sure there 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 313 

would be many willing to go of their own accord. 
The rest might return, and say they had left the 
king in the midst of his enemies. 

Even this appeal to their feelings was of no 
effect : the soldiers were still bent upon a retreat. 
Alexander remained three days within his tent, not 
even allowing his chief officers to come near him, 
and still hoping that the disposition of his men 
would change. But at the end of that time he was 
forced to yield. As an excuse for thus giving up 
his own will, he declared that omens had been ob- 
served, which showed that it would be unfortunate 
to cross the river Zaradrus, and that in consequence 
it was his intention to go back. 

The intelligence was received with shouts of de- 
light, and Alexander, — after ordering twelve great 
altars to be built on the banks of the Zaradrus, and 
dedicated to the gods whom he believed had led 
him thus far victorious, — prepared to return to 
Persia. The portion of India which was conquered 
by Alexander is particularly interesting to us now, 
because of the war which has in later years been 
carried on there between the English, and the AfF- 
ghans, and Sikhs. The battle of Chillianwallah, 
fought in 1848, between Lord Gough and the Sikhs, 
took place nearly on the same spot as that between 
Alexander and Porus. 

Though Alexander had consented to return to 
Persia, he had no idea of going back through the 
countries he had conquered. His wish was to fol- 
low the course of the Indus, an enormous river into 
which many other rivers fall. The waters of the 
Zaradrus, after joining another river, at last fall 
into the Indus ; so also do those of the Hydaspes ; 
and it was on the Hydaspes that the king and a 
portion of his army embarked, in a fleet which was 
probably collected from the natives. The remain- 
27 



314 HISTOE,Y OF GREECE. 

der of the forces, with about 200 elephants, ad 
vanced along the eastern bank. 

It must have been a strange and beautiful sight. 
The Indians stood on the bank in wonder, watching 
the mass of vessels as they glided away from theii 
sight, and were lost amidst the distant woods ; and 
the shouts of Alexander's rowers mingled with the 
strains of warlike music, with which the natives 
showed their delight at a spectacle so splendid. 

But, though the retreat was thus easily and 
happily begun, there was much to be borne before 
the Macedonian army again found itself in civilised 
countries. 

The river on which Alexander had embarked, 
as was before said, joins the Indus. The nations 
on the banks of the Indus were hostile to him, and 
it was necessary therefore to conquer them ; and 
when, after subduing them, Alexander at length 
reached the sea, there was still a dreary tract of 
country to be crossed by himself, and those of his 
troops who were to return to Persia by land. A 
portion of the army were to go by sea ; and this 
was really a voyage of discovery, for Alexander 
only guessed that there was an open sea between 
the Indus and the Persian Gulf ; there were no 
ships passing backwards and forwards between In- 
dia and Persia, as there are now. Of course it was 
necessary to build vessels fitted for such an under- 
taking, since the galleys, in which the army had 
rowed down the Indus, would not have been at all 
fitted for the dangers of the sea. This was a work 
of some months; but there was a city called Pat- 
tala, at the mouth of the Indus, of which Alexander 
took possession ; and there he formed a harbour, 
and built his vessels. When all was ready, Near- 
chus, a great friend of the king, was made com* 
mander'of the expedition. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 315 

Alexander did not, however, see his fleet saiL 
The wind was not favourable, and they were obliged 
to delay ; and as he did not think it desirable for 
the rest of the army to wait so long at Pattala, he 
began his march with them first. His plan was, to 
pass along the sea coast, and through the country 
then called Gedrosia, which lay to the east of the 
Persian Gulf. The difficulties of this march were 
terrible. The heat was so great that, to avoid it, 
the army generally moved at night ; the sand which 
the men often walked upon, was in the daytime so 
burning that it blistered their feet ; whilst at night 
it was driven by the wind into long ridges, and 
numbers of the animals died under the fatigue of 
wading through them. The carriages were broken 
up, because they could not be dragged along, and 
there were then no means of conveying the sick ; 
and as their companions became at last careless of 
them, they were often left to perish in the sandy 
waste. 

But the greatest distress of all was caused by 
the scarcity of water. Numbers of men and animals 
expired from thirst, and when the soldiers came in 
sight of water, several were known to drink till 
they died. 

Alexander bore his full share of these hard- 
ships. He walked on foot with his troops, and 
gave them an example of fortitude which they could 
not help admiring and trying to imitate. On one 
occasion, some soldiers who had been sent to search 
for water, discovered a little in the bed of a tor- 
rent, and brought it in a helmet to the king ; Alex- 
ander was parched and faint with thirst, but he 
could not bring himself to indulge in a luxury which 
others were not to share ; and whilst many were 
gazing upon him, — longing, doubtless, that they 



316 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

could be in his place, — he poured the delicious 
draught on the ground. 

The perils of the sea voyage were not less than 
those of the land journey. The troops of Nearchus 
having landed for a short time, met those of Alex- 
ander in the district of Caramania, or Kerman, 
which joined Gedrosia. They had only been sepa- 
rated a few months, but the forces of Nearchus were 
so altered in consequence of all they had suffered, 
that their countrymen did not know them again. 
The trials of all were then, however, nearly over. 
They parted, but it was with the hope of soon meet- 
ing again in safety. Nearchus pursued his voyage 
up the Persian Gulf, and Alexander proqeeded to 
Susa, where many important affairs" awaited him. 



CHAPTER XLL 

DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT AT BABYLON. 
b. c. 323. 

As was naturally to be expected, the governors who 
had ruled the empire during the absence of Alex- 
ander, had not all been faithful to him, or governed 
with wisdom and gentleness. When the king re- 
turned numerous complaints reached him from all 
quarters, and it was evident that a great spirit of 
disloyalty prevailed both amongst the Persians and 
Macedonians. It must have been a most difficult 
task even for Alexander to please two distinct na- 
tions, of different habits and language, so suddenly 
mixed together ; but as he had braved distant evils, 
so he was now ready to overcome those which were 
nearer. 

It was necessary, if possible, the make the Per- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 31" 7 ' 

sian^ and Macedonians one people ; and with this 
object. Alexander encouraged his officers to take 
Persian ladies for their wives, and appointed a 
great festival on which all the marriages were to be 
celebrated publicly. 

On this day he celebrated his own marriage 
with Statira, the daughter of Darius ; and that of 
Hephaestion, his dearest friend, with Statira's sister. 
Another of his generals married a niece of Darius ; 
and, in fact, more than a hundred Macedonians of 
rank were at this time united to the great Persian 
families. Not contented with this, Alexander also 
induced 10,000 private soldiers of his army to mar- 
ry Asiatic women ; giving their wives portions, and 
allowing their weddings to be celebrated at the same 
time and in the same place as his own. 

It must certainly have been the largest and 
grandest marriage party that ever was known. A 
gorgeous tent, supported by pillars sixty feet high, 
was erected on a plain near the city of Susa. It 
was hung with the richest silks, and sparkled with 
gold and silver. The 10,000 soldiers were enter- 
tained in an outer court. The marriages were cele- 
brated according to the Persian usage, and after- 
wards the king gave his hand to Statira ; and salut- 
ed her as his wife, and the officers followed his 
example. This completed the ceremony. A mag- 
nificent banquet followed, and the festivities alto- 
gether lasted for five days. Statira was not the 
only wife of .Alexander, for according to the Per- 
sian custom he had several, who were, however, all 
considered inferior to her. 

Notwithstanding these endeavours to preserve 
peace, Alexander could not succeed in satisfying his 
Macedonian officers. They were still full of jea- 
lousy, and caused him much vexation by their sus- 
picion' and discontent. But a private grief which 



318 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

befell liim about this time, seems to have been more 
deeply felt by him than any public calamity. This 
was the loss of his friend Hephsestion, who died un- 
expectedly of a fever. Hephsestion does not ap- 
pear to have been a great or a good man, but Alex- 
ander's fondness for him was excessive. When he 
died the king was for a long time inconsolable, and 
seemed to find his only comfort in paying the most 
extravagant honours to his friend's memory. A 
general mourning was ordered to be observed 
throughout all Alexander's Asiatic dominions ; and 
the same signs of lamentation were shown as .were 
common upon the death of a Persian king. Amongst 
others, the horses and mules were shorn ; and the 
walls of Ecbatana, the city in which Hephsestion 
died, were divested of their battlements. 

The officers of the court, seeing the king so en- 
grossed in grief, endeavoured, in many ways, to 
divert his mind. But although he roused himself 
sufficiently to make an expedition against some re- 
bellious mountaineers, he was still often absorbed 
in gloomy thoughts. On his return from the moun- 
tains he went to Babylon, and there pleased him- 
self by erecting a funeral pile for his friend, so 
splendid that none of the wonderful buildings oi 
the East had ever surpassed it. It was a square 
tower, about 200 feet high, divided into thirty sto- 
ries, and covered on the outside with groups of 
figures, larger than life, and other ornaments ; all 
being made of gold, ivory, or similar valuable ma- 
terials. On the top were a set of statues, so con- 
trived that they sent forth strains of sad, soft 
music. 

Alexander's energy seemed to return after this, 
and he occupied himself with plans for exploring 
the coast of Arabia, and the shores of the Caspian 
Sea. His dominions were now so great, and his 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 319 

power so vast, that those who were accustomed to 
worship their great heroes did not hesitate to own 
him as a god. Envoys arrived from Greece to of- 
fer him golden crowns, and salute him with the name 
of a deity. At that moment the Almighty Lord of 
All had decreed that Alexander's death should be 
close at hand. 

Shortly after the arrival of the Grecian envoys, 
a grand banquet was given at Babylon to the Mace- 
donian and Persian officers. Alexander, as was 
his custom, continued with them till a late hour, 
drinking. Th« following evening the same revels 
were continued at the house of one of his intimate 
friends ; and at the close of this banquet, the symp- 
toms of a fever, which had probably been upon him 
for several days, showed themselves so strongly that 
he did not return to his palace. 

For several days he continued extremely ill, 
but did not think himself in danger. His thoughts 
were still bent upon the new expeditions he was 
planning, and orders concerning them were given 
to his generals, from day to day. 

On the seventh day he felt himself dying. His 
generals were admitted to his chamber, and found 
him sensible, but speechless. His soldiers passed 
through the room, one by one, and he recognised 
and made signs to them, but could give them no 
parting words. All human aid was now of no avail. 
His empire was passing from him, and who was to 
inherit it? 

This question none dared to ask ; — but the last, 
act of Alexander was to draw his ring from his finger 
and give it to Perdiccas, one of the most distin- 
guished of his Macedonian generals. 

With this faint intimation of his wishes, the 
great conqueror of the world expired. 

Alexander the Great died in the year b. c. 323, 



320 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

at the age of 34. His empire was the largest ever 
possessed by one man, and he has continued to this 
day, perhaps, the most celebrated amongst earthly 
monarchs. Yet he was no sooner dead, than all his 
vast dominions seemed, as it were, to melt away. 
Though Perdiccas had received the ring, he was not 
allowed to hold the kingdom. The generals of 
Alexander contended for his throne, and divided 
his possessions. Every one forgot their monarch, 
and each thought only of himself; and the truest 
marks of affection for Alexander's memory were 
given by Sisygambis, the mother of his great ene- 
my Darius. Upon being told that Alexander was 
dead, she seated herself on the ground, covered her 
face with a veil, refused to take food, and on the 
fifth day died. 

Yet we must not think that because Alexander's 
empire was thus quickly broken up, therefore his 
conquests were of no importance. We cannot, in- 
deed, consider it right that one man should invade 
the dominions of another, and rob him of his just 
inheritance ; but however we may blame Alexan- 
der's ambition, we must confess that his power was 
of great use to the world. He spread the customs 
and tastes of the Greeks amongst the nations of 
the East; and in Alexandria, especially, all the 
treasures of Greek learning were in consequence 
collected and preserved, so that they have now come 
down to us. He also caused great activity in com- 
merce, by forming harbours for vessels, and encour- 
aging men to trade from one place to another. 
When he had conquered a country, it was his wish 
also to improve it ; and, if he had never lived, the 
world would, probably, now be in a much less civil- 
ized state than it is. These are circumstances for 
which we ought to be very grateful ; and persons 
who read history attentively will constantly find, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 32 i 

as in this instance, that the faults of a monarch are 
ruled by the mercy of God, for the good not only 
of his own people, but of distant ages. 

Amongst the anecdotes which have been related 
of Alexander, there is one which can scarcely be 
omitted in any account of his life. It is connected 
with Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher. Diogenes 
was a native of Sinope, a town of Pontus, in Asia 
Minor ; but a great part of his life was spent at 
Athens. He is said to have been a very extrava- 
gant, careless person when young; but he after- 
wards practised great self-denial, and used to live 
on the plainest food, and sleep in porticoes or in 
the- streets ; and at last, it is declared that he took 
up his residence in a large tub. His wish was, 
to make persons practice what they knew to be 
right, as well as talk about it ; and, in spite of his 
strange habits, he was much respected. The name 
of Cynic was given him from his sharpness of man- 
ner when finding fault. As he was once sailing to 
the island of iEgina he was taken prisoner by some 
pirates, and by them sold as a slave to an inhabit- 
ant of Corinth. But he soon received his free- 
dom, and continued to live in his master's house, 
taking care of his children. It was at Corinth that 
his interview with Alexander the Great, which has 
ever since been famous, is said to have taken place. 
The king began the conversation by saying, u I am 
Alexander the Great ;" to which the philosopher 
replied, "And lam Diogenes the Cynic." Alexan- 
der then inquired whether he could benefit him in 
any way. "Yes," was the reply, "you can stand 
out of the sunshine." The king found that it was 
useless to offer any favour to a man who had so few 
wants ; and, being full of admiration for him, is said 
to have exclaimed : " If I were not Alexander, I 
should wish to be Diogenes." 



322 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Diogenes was ninety years old when he died, at 
Corinth, b. c. 323. 



CHAPTER XLIL 

ATHENS TAKEN BY ANTIPATER. 
b. c. 322. 

We must now return to Greece, which, however, 
at this time scarcely merits the name of a separate 
and independent country. During the lifetime of 
Alexander, several attempts were made by the peo- 
ple to recover their freedom, but they were all un- 
successful. Antipater, the general who governed 
Macedonia, was always able to subdue them ; and 
indeed Sparta and the Peloponnesian states were 
almost alone in their efforts, for the Athenians 
cared much more for their amusements than their 
liberty ; and as long as they were allowed their 
games and festivals, were quite willing to remain 
quiet. Demosthenes still endeavoured, from time 
to time, to rouse their fears, and make them see the 
danger they were in, and he would even have desired 
that they should seek the favour of the king of 
Persia; but although his influence was very great, 
there were still other persons of importance in the 
state to oppose him. Phocion continued to take 
the Macedonian side in all public questions ; and 
iEschines also, an orator, and a rival of Demos- 
thenes, who had, years before, done every thing he 
could to gain the favour of Philip of Macedon, now 
thwarted Demosthenes on every opportunity, and 
at last caused a public enquiry to be made into his 
conduct. 

Demosthenes had not much difficulty in defend- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 323 

ing himself, for his life had always been so pure, 
that every person who was not prejudiced must 
have been forced to own that he was innocent of 
any public offence. 

iEschines lost his cause, and left Athens full 
of venation, and went to live at Rhodes. It is said, 
that as he was about to embark, Demosthenes fol- 
lowed him with a purse of money, which he forced 
him to accept. jEschines was much touched by 
this kindness, and exclaimed : " How will it be pos- 
sible for me not to regret a country, in which I leave 
an enemy more generous than I can hope to find 
friends in any other part of the world?" 

A few years afterwards, Demosthenes was him- 
self compelled to leave Athens. The circumstances 
which caused his misfortune were these : — Whilst 
Alexander was in Asia, one of his generals, who 
had behaved extremely ill, and was afraid of the 
king's displeasure, made his escape to Greece, bring- 
ing with him a large amount of treasures, with 
which he intended to bribe the Athenians to side 
with him against Alexander. At the time when 
this man arrived in Greece, the Greeks were in a 
state of extreme indignation against Alexander, w*ho 
had sent an order to them to receive back all their 
exiles, whether they liked it or not. The way in 
which this order was given was sufficient in itself 
to rouse their anger ; for Alexander was not ac- 
knowledged to be their king, and he had strictly 
promised not to intefere with their laws. A pro- 
clamation was published at the Olympic festival in 
the following style : " King Alexander to the exiles 
from the Greek cities. We were not the authors 
of your exile, but we will restore you to your homes, 
—all but those who are under a curse. And we 
have written to Antipater on the subject, that he 



324 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

may compel those cities which are unwilling, to re- 
ceive you." 

We can easily imagine how exceedingly angry 
the Greeks were when this proclamation was read. 
Several of the states began to talk of war. and when 
Alexander's general, Harpalus, arrived at Athens, 
with his bribes, there were many persons willing to 
listen to him. 

The greater number of the Athenians were, 
however, too much afraid of Antipater, the Macedo- 
nian governor, to take part with Harpalus. After 
a time an enquiry was made as to the persons who 
had received money from him, and amongst those 
who were accused was Demosthenes, 

The accusation was not thoroughly proved, in- 
deed there is every reason, from the character of 
Demosthenes, to believe that it was false. But he 
was condemned and sentenced to pay a fine ; and 
as he could not do this, he would have been thrown 
into prison, if he had not fled from Athens, and 
sought for refuge at Troezen, and in the island of 
iEgina. From these places he could still see 
Athens, and here he waited sadly, lingering day 
after day, on the coast or the cliffs, looking towards 
his beloved city, and longing for some change in 
public affairs which would enable him to return. 

The death of Alexander must to him, especially, 
have appeared a happy event for Athens ; and at 
the first, it certainly seemed as if the ancient spirit 
of the people was restored to them, and that they 
were about, with one consent, to rise up against the 
power of Macedon, and declare themselves free. 

In an Assembly of the people, it was declared 
that Athens was ready to assert the liberty of Greece, 
and to deliver the cities which were held by Mace- 
donian garrisons. All the citizens under forty 
years of age were called to arms, a large fleet was 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 325 

ordered to be made ready, and envoys were sent to 
the different states of Greece to announce that 
Athens was willing to take the front in the ap- 
proaching war, and to risk every thing for freedom. 
Phocion, however, looked on all this enthusiasm 
with distrust. At first he would not believe that 
Alexander was really dead ; and endeavoured to 
prevent the people from assembling immediately in 
council. He entreated them to have patience, to 
wait till they were quite certain the report was true. 
" If the king is dead to-day," he said, " he will still 
be dead to-morrow, and the next day, so that we 
may deliberate at our leisure, and the more secure- 
ly." And when at length they were assured of the 
fact, and the preparations for war had actually 
begun, Phocion still kept aloof and would express 
no pleasure or even hope of success, but only said, 
" that the preparations were well enough for a single 
course, but that he feared for the end of the race, 
seeing that the city had no more money, or ships, 
or men, to carry on the contest with if these should 
be lost." 

The spirit of Demosthenes was as hopeful as 
that of Phocion was desponding. He was still an 
exile from Atheos, but when he heard of the em- 
bassy which was sent to rouse the Peloponnesiau 
states, all anger against his country vanished. 
Leaving his retreat, he joined the envoys as they 
went from city to city, and exerted his splendid 
talents in public speaking, to prevail on the differ- 
ent states to take up arms for the freedom of Greece. 
• The Athenians were full of gratitude for his 
services ; and one of his kinsmen, seeing that the 
opinion of the public was in his favour, proposed 
that he should be recalled. The decree was passed, 
and a vessel was sent by public authority to bring 
him back. Whsn he reached Piraeus a procession, 
28 



P26 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

headed by the chief persons in Athens, went to the 
port to receive him, and he was conducted to the 
city in triumph. It was a most joyfol day for De 
mosthenes, and he delighted to compare his own 
return with that of Alcibiades. He had, himself, 
been restored to his former honours from a sense 
of gratitude ; but Alcibiades was brought back 
from fear, because his countrymen knew he would 
be a powerful enemy if he was forced to remain an 
exile. 

So far it seemed as if Demosthenes had judged 
rightly, and Phocion wrongly. Yet, in the end, 
events proved that the fears of Phocion were well 
founded. 

Antipater was still governor in Macedonia, or 
rather we should call him regent, for he ruled in 
the name of two princes. One was a little infant, 
the son of Roxana, one of Alexander's wives, who 
was born after the king's death. The other was 
Aridseus Philip, a half brother of Alexander, who 
was made joint king with the infant prince. Ari- 
daeus was a very weak person, and no one would 
have thought much about him, if it had not been 
for his wife Eurydice, a clever, ambitious woman, 
who eagerly desired the power and grandeur of a 
throne. 

But neither Aridseus nor the young prince 
Alexander had ever any actual authority in the 
empire. The great generals seized every thing, 
and carried on their wars just as they liked, with- 
out a thought for anything but their own interests. 

When Antipater found that the Greeks were 
rising in rebellion, he collected an army and march- 
ed against them. Success was, for a time, entirely 
with the Greeks : but it did not remain with them. 
The power of Antipater could not be resisted by a 
people whose spirit was so much lessened ; and. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 32* 

after a short struggle, the Athenians were compelled 
to entreat fcr peace, and to submit to whatever 
conditions Antipater thought fit to insist upon. 

They had no personal danger to fear ; but the 
commands of Antipater must have been very bitter 
to those who had once so gloried in their power 
and freedom. A Macedonian garrison was station- 
ed in one of the ports of the city ; a large number 
of persons, who had once been citizens, and allowed 
to take part in the government, and vote in the 
public assembly, were now declared unfit for this 
privilege, because of their poverty ; and many of 
them left Athens in consequence, and went to live 
in a distant land ; whilst some of the chief persons 
in the state were regularly banished. 

Demosthenes knew well that he could not es- 
cape, when so much suffering was going' on around 
him. Before the Macedonian garrison arrived, he 
retired from the city, and sought refuge, as before, 
at iEgina. From thence he proceeded to a small 
island, near Troezen. Here one of Antipater's 
followers, named Archias, found him. Archias had 
once been a player, and was now one of an infamous 
set of men, who received the name of Exile Hunt- 
ers, from the task which they undertook of finding 
out and slaying the exiles, who were the enemies 
of Antipater. Demosthenes knew that Archias 
was coming, and waited his arrival in a temple 
dedicated to the god Poseidon. Archias at first 
tried to deceive him ; and spoke to him as a friend, 
and endeavoured to persuade him to leave his re- 
treat ; promising, at the same time, to intercede 
with Antipater for him. Demosthenes listened for 
a time, and then replied, " Archias, you never won 
me by your acting, nor will you now by your prom- 
ises." The player found that his purpose was 
discovered, and threatened instead of promising, 



328 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Demosthenes was still quite unmoved, and only 
begged to have time given him that he might write 
a letter to his friends. Taking up the reed with 
which he was accustomed to write, he put the end 
of it in his mouth and bit it. Then, bending his 
head, he covered his face with his robe. Archias 
imagined that he was delaying from fear, and began 
to reproach him with cowardice. But Demosthe- 
nes, when biting the reed, had at the same time 
taken poison, which was laid upon the point ; and 
now, uncovering his face, and rising he said, " I 
quit thy sanctuary, Poseidon, still breathing, though 
Antipater and the Macedonians have not spared 
even it from pollution." He moved towards the 
door with a slow and trembling step, and, before 
he reached the threshold, fell with a groan and ex- 
pired. 

Many years passed before the Athenians were 
allowed to show the respect which they felt for 
their celebrated fellow citizen : but at length a 
bronze statue was erected to his memory, bearing 
this inscription : " Had but the strength of thy 
arm, Demosthenes, equalled thy spirit, never would 
Greece have sunk under the foreigner's yoke." 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

ATHENS SUBMITS TO CASSANDER. 
B. c. 318. 

The history of Athens from this time, is but a 
succession of struggles against the power of the 
Macedonian rulers. At first, indeed, after the sub- 
mission to Antipater, every thing went on very 
quietly. The few citizens who were allowed to re- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 329 

main, were entirely under the influence of Phocion ; 
and his- good sense and high principles served to 
keep them tranquil, although they never could en- 
dure the sight of the Macedonian soldiers who were 
stationed at the port of Munychia. Phocion, how- 
ever, had great reason to lament the part he had 
taken in public matters. He had urged the people 
to submit to the power of Macedon ; and the gov- 
ernors of Macedon caused the ruin both of his 
country and himself. After the death of Antipater 
there were great disturbances in Macedonia, between 
his son, Cassander, and Poiysperchon, one of Alex- 
ander's generals, whom Antipater, on his death-bed, 
had appointed to succeed him as regent of Macedo- 
nia. Poiysperchon, wishing to gain the favour of 
the Greeks, set forth a proclamation declaring that 
Greece should be free. Cassander, on the contrary, 
desired to treat the country as his father had done, 
and sent one of his friends to command the garrison 
in the port of Munychia. The Athenians were na- 
turally inclined to favour Poiysperchon, but Phocion 
would not join with them. He made no efforts to 
dislodge the garrison, though Poiysperchon had sent 
him orders to do so ; and at length the people were 
so angry that they accused him, and several persons 
who had sided with him, of treason. They were 
tried by the Assembly of the people, and condemn- 
ed to death. 

The feeling against Phocion was so strong that 
many persons, before lifting up their hands to vote 
against him, crowned themselves, as they were 
accustomed to do when about to take part in any 
joyful solemnity. 

The sentence was executed with unusual haste, 
for although it was a holiday, the people would not 
allow any delay. They insulted Phocion grossly as 
he was carried back to prison ; but he bore every 



330 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

thing with the greatest meekness, and seemed only 
to feel sorrow for those who were to suffer with 
him. As a proof how little ill will he felt, it is said 
that, when he was asked if he had any message for 
his son, he replied, "Only tell him not to bear any 
grudge against the Athenians." The poison which 
was prepared was brought, but it was not sufficient 
for all who were to drink of it ; and when the jailor 
required to be paid for bringing more, Phocion re- 
quested one of his friends to comply with the de- 
mand, observing, that " Athens was a place where 
one could not even die for nothing." This was the 
only remark that showed the bitterness of heart 
which he must really have felt. He may have 
greatly erred in his counsels for the good of his 
country, but no one could doubt that he acted 
from the purest motives. 

Phocion was called " The Incorruptible," be- 
cause he was never known to accept a bribe. There 
was another person, equally noted for integrity, who 
lived about the same time, but whose name is not 
so generally known, because he did not take so great 
a part in foreign affairs. Lycurgus, the Athenian, 
was, indeed, in many respects superior to Phocion. 
He was of noble birth, and possessed an ample 
fortune, but he lived, like Socrates, in the most 
simple manner himself, and took great pains to 
correct the luxurious habits of the people. No one, 
except Pericles, ever did as such as Lycurgus to 
adorn Athens with public buildings, or gave up as 
much of his attention to the improvement of the 
taste and learning of his fellow citizens. But his 
chief talent lay in a careful management of the 
public money. He was placed at the head of the 
treasury, and allowed to keep the office for twelve 
years, though, generally speaking, no one was per- 
mitted to hold it more than four. Enormous sums 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 331 

of money passed through his hands, but he was 
never known to have a flaw in his accounts ; and 
his truth and integrity were so great, that private 
persons used to give their property in charge to 
him ; and his witness was considered the best aid 
that any one could have in a court of law. 

A short time before his death, he is said to have 
caused himself to be carried into the council cham- 
ber, where he called upon all persons to come for- 
ward and declare the charges they might have 
against him in his public character. Only one man 
was found to accuse him, and every thing which he 
said was disproved. 

The Athenians, fallen though they were in many 
respects, could yet venerate a character like that of 
Lycurgus. They bestowed crowns and distinctions 
upon him during his life ; and after his death he 
was honoured with a public funeral, a statue was 
erected to his memory, and peculiar privileges were 
granted to his family. 

The contest between Cassander and Polysper- 
chon continued for a considerable time, but Cassan- 
der was in the end victorious, and not only made 
himself master of Macedonia, but also contrived to 
murder Olympias, the mother of Alexander the 
Great, together with Roxana and her young son 
Alexander ; so that no one was left who had a 
right to dispute his power. 

Olympias was one of the most haughty and 
ambitious women that ever lived, and had made 
great efforts to overthrow the power of Antipater 
and his family, in order to secure all authority for 
herself and her grandson. The majesty of her ap- 
pearance was so great that when she came forward, 
dressed in her royal robes, to meet the soldiers 
whom Cassander had ordered to kill her, they drew 
back overpowered ; and Cassander was obliged to 



332 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

procure other persons to execute his commands. 
She deserves, however, but little pity, for she wag 
supposed to have been concerned in the murder of 
her husband, Philip of Macedon ; and it is certain 
that she caused the death of her step-son Aridaeus 
Philip, and his wife Eurydice, who, as it was said, 
occupied the throne after the death of Alexander 
the Great. 

Roxana, also, who was killed by Cassander, had 
behaved in the most treacherous and cruel manner 
to Statira, sometimes called Barsine, the daughter 
of Darius, who, like herself, was one of Alexander's 
wives, and whom she exceedingly hated. She in- 
vited Statira and her sister to come to her at 
Babylon, and sent them a very friendly letter, to 
induce them to accept the proposal ; but, when the 
two princesses arrived she caused them to be assas- 
sinated, and secretly buried. Now, when Cassander 
was in power, the same fate came upon Roxana and 
her son. It is very remarkable that not only was 
Alexander's empire rapidly broken to pieces by the 
quarrels of his generals, but all the members of his 
family died a violent death. The blessing of 
Heaven certainly did not rest upon his ambition 
and his conquests. 

Though Cassander was a very bad man, his vic- 
tory was, in some respects, good for the Athenians. 
He allowed one of their own citizens, Demetrius, 
of Phaleron, to govern them, and, for a time, they 
were tranquil and happy. But they could not long 
escape disturbance when so many disputes were 
going on around them. 

Demetrius of Phaleron was a gentle governor, 
but he became unpopular from his extravagance ; 
and when he had governed Athens for about ten 
years, another Demetrius, named Poliorcetes, or 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 333 

"the conqueror of cities," appeared unexpectedly 
at Athens, and took all his power from him. 

This Demetrius Poliorcetes was the son of An- 
tigonus, one of Alexander's generals, who tried to 
make himself lord of Asia. Antigonus and Cas- 
sander were at this time at war, and, as was always 
the case, both parties were anxious to gain posses- 
sion of Greece. Demetrius Poliorcetes told the 
Athenians that he was come to restore their free- 
dom, and the people, in great delight, received him 
with honour, presented him and his father with a 
golden crown, and ordered statues to be erected to 
them. Demetrius was a most fascinating person, 
but, in many respects, too like Alcibiades. The 
Athenians were charmed with his handsome face 
and his winning manners, and flattered and hu- 
moured him in the most shameful manner, even 
allowing him to live in a part of the Parthenon, or 
temple of Athene. 

The inhabitants of Peloponnesus also received 
him as their deliverer, and he was chosen to be 
head of the Greek Confederacy. This state of 
things, however, did not last very long. Demetrius 
left Greece and joined his father, and assisted him 
in his wars ; and when he came back to Athens 
again, he found that the feeling of the people was 
quite changed. Alexander's generals, it seems, had 
now taken to themselves the title of king; and 
Antigonus not only called himself a king, but 
allowed his son to do the same. The people of 
Athens knowing this, sent word to Demetrius that 
they had passed a decree not to admit any kings in- 
to their city. Demetrius sailed away then, but two 
years afterwards he came back with a fleet, and an 
army, and besieged the city and took it. The people 
were ordered to assemble in the theatre, and when 
they were all collected, Demetrius came forward on 



334 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the stage and made them a speech. Everyone ex« 
pected that it would be full of reproaches and 
anger ; but Demetrius addressed them in the mild- 
est manner, assured them that he quite forgave 
them, and. — what was equally important to them 
iust then, — made them a present of corn ; for, 
whilst he had been besieging the city the inhabit- 
ants were nearly starved. He allowed them to 
keep their old customs ; but he was considered 
their master and left a governor behind him to re- 
tain them in subjection. 

Demetrius after this conquered Macedonia and 
the rest of Greece, but he was dethroned by Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus. He still, however, carried on a 
war in Asia, with a small body of troops, against 
another of Alexander's generals, who was then king 
of Syria : but he was taken prisoner and kept in 
captivity for two years ; and at last growing quite 
weary, he took no pleasure in anything but exces- 
sive eating and drinking, and died in consequence. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

AGIS IV. ENDEAVOURS TO REFORM SPARTA, 
B. c. 244. 

There is little more to be told of the condition of 
Greece under the rule of the Macedonian kings, 
except an attempt made by the Spartans to bring 
back something like the ancient customs and strict 
discipline which had, by degrees, fallen into disuse. 
This took place about the year b. c. 244, thirty- 
nine years after the death of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
Sparta had, up to this time, kept very much aloof 
from the wars which were going on around. The 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 335 

people still called themselves free, and they enjoyed 
their ancient form of government ; but they had 
no power to assist others, and were often exposed 
to danger from the conquerors of the other states 
of Greece. In the year above mentioned, Agis IV., 
a descendant of Agesilaus, was one of the kings ot 
Sparta. He was not twenty years of age when he 
came to the throne, and had been brought up in 
great luxury. But the honours of his rank, and 
the amusements suitable to his age, did not satisfy 
him. He was always thinking of the time when 
the Spartans were a brave and hardy people, and 
longing for some great change which might enable 
him to bring back the simple habits they had lost. 
One of the Ephors was his friend, and entered into 
his plans ; and by his help Agis was able to make 
some very useful laws, by which the poor were re- 
lieved from the debts that many of them owed, 
whilst the lands of Laconia were more equally 
divided. These reforms were very much disliked 
by several of the chief persons in Sparta, and espe- 
cially by the king who reigned with Agis ; and 
when Agis was absent from the city they roused 
the people against him. On his return he was 
seized and brought to trial before the Ephors. He 
was asked whether he repented of his conduct ; but 
he replied, that however fatal the issue of his under- 
taking might be to himself, he could never regret 
it. The Ephors then condemned him to death. 
He was carried off calm and unmoved. An attend- 
ant bewailed his fate ; but the king consoled him 
saying, " that he was still superior to his murderers." 
They strangled him in the chamber of execution, 
and then brought his grandmother and his mother, 
who had also been sentenced to death for supporting 
him, to look upon his dead body. His grandmother 
was first killed, and his mother, having laid the 



336 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

corpse by the side of Agis, and given him her last 
kiss, bent her own neck to the cord, saying : " May 
it but bring good to Sparta." Agiatis, the young 
wife of Agis, who was both rich and beautiful, was 
forced, after the loss of her husband, to marry the 
son of the other king, though his father had been 
the greatest enemy of Agis, and the cause of his 
death. This, strange to say, was the occasion of a 
further attempt being made to carry out the plans 
for the reformation of the country. The second 
husband of Agiatis was named Cleomenes. He 
was very young when his father forced him to marry, 
and he became extremely fond of his wife, and 
took great interest in hearing all she had to tell 
him about Agis. He saw how wrongly his father 
had behaved, and determined, as soon as possible, 
to follow out the intentions of Agis, and make 
another effort to reform the Spartan institutions 

Cleomenes came to the throne after his father's 
death, and had then a better prospect of being able 
to fulfil his purpose ; but he was obliged to proceed 
very carefully. What he most desired, was to 
diminish the authority of the Ephors, which had 
become much greater than it was originally meant 
to be. In order to obtain this end. he knew that a 
war would be very desirable ; as it would give him 
the opportunity of gaining victories, and so increas- 
ing his own power, until at last he might oblige 
the people to agree to any alterations in the govern- 
ment which he might consider necessary. 

The opportunity of a war soon came. There 
was at this time a union amongst the chief towns 
in Achaia, called the Achsean league. Its object 
was to maintain the freedom of Greece. This 
league was not thought of much importance until 
Aratus, a citizen of Sicyon, persuaded his country* 
men to become members of it. Aratus was a brave, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 337 

noble-minded, and clever man, and was made stra 
tegus, or general, of the joint army ; and, after he 
had thus set the example of joining the league, Co- 
rinth and some of the other Peloponnesian states 
did the same. The Lacedaemonians, however, kept 
aloof from it, and were afraid of its becoming too 
powerful, and this feeling of jealousy was the cause 
of a war. 

Unfortunately for Greece, the different states 
were now never able to stand alone ; and when Aratus 
found that Cleomenes was likely to gain the advan- 
tage in the war, he opened a communication with 
Antigonus Doson, then king of Macedonia, hoping 
for his support. He thought that Antigonus would 
assist him, and still allow Greece to be free ; and h« 
was afraid that if Cleomenes gained the victory, 
he would put an end to the Achaean league, and 
that Sparta would become supreme and tyrannical 
over the other Peloponnesian states. But it was a 
great mistake, and it ended in destroying his own 
object. Cleomenes gained several victories at first, 
and was able, in consequence, to make the altera- 
tions he wished in the state ; for as he had an army 
at his command, he was too powerful to be opposed. 
Several of the Ephors were killed, which seemed a 
cruel act, but it was one which Cleomenes considered 
necessary for the good of the country, as they had 
used their power wrongly. The debts of the poor 
were forgiven, and the lands were divided afresh. 
Cleomenes gave up his own property, and set an 
example, — as, indeed, he had always been in the 
habit of doing, — of simplicity and frugality in his 
mode of life. Several important changes were, 
besides, made in the government, which Cleomenes 
thought would bring it back to what it had been 
originally ; but many persons have considered that 
he really gave too much power to the kings, and 
29 



338 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

that the form of government which he established 
was more like a tyranny, or the rule of an absolute 
monarch, than anything else. 

But, however this might be, it did not last very 
long. When Antigonus, king of Macedonia, sup- 
ported Aratus and the Achsean league, both toge- 
ther were too strong for Cleomenes. Not that the 
Spartans were left without any help from the other 
states of Greece. There was a league called the 
JEtolian league, — a confederacy among the cities 
of JEtolia, — which had existed a long time, and the 
members of this league now sided with Cleomenes. 
The iEtolians were a rude, uncivilized people, and 
had as frequently taken part with the Macedonian 
king as against them. Their league was not much 
liked, though it was powerful, and their support, 
though it served to delay the conquests of Antigo- 
nus, could not save Sparta from the fate which 
awaited it. 

Antigonus invaded Peloponnesus, and carried 
on the war with much vigour for more than two 
years. 

After a battle, fought at Sellasia, a town in La- 
conia, in which Antigonus was completely the con- 
queror, Cleomenes gave up all hope, and even en- 
treated his countrymen not to think of irritating 
the king of Macedonia, by a resistance which they 
knew must be vain. For himself, though he dared 
not remain in Greece, yet he was still, he said, de- 
termined, whether in life or death, to devote him- 
self to the service of Sparta. A vessel had been 
kept in readiness for him, in case of need, and he 
embarked in it, and went to Egypt, where he was 
kindly received by the king, who allowed him a 
pension, and promised to aid him to recover his 
kingdom. Cleomenes thus remained in safety for 
some time ; but the king who next succeeded to 



HISTORY OF GREECE. . 339 

tlie throne of Egypt became jealous of him, and 
kept him a prisoner ; and Cleomenes, despairing of 
obtaining his freedom or returning to his country, 
endeavoured to excite an insurrection against the 
king, and, failing in this, killed himself. Agiatis, 
the wife of Cleomenes, died some years before him. 
and it is said that he mourned for her more than 
for all his misfortunes. 

Antigonus treated the Spartans mercifully, but 
he restored the government of the Ephors. The 
cities of the Achasan league, also, were obliged to 
admit a Macedonian garrison within their walls, 
and were not able from that time to undertake any 
enterprise, or even to make a decree, without the 
consent of the king of Macedon. The citadel of 
Corinth, the Acrocorinthus, as it was called, was 
also given into the hands of the Macedonians ; 
indeed, it was one of the first things which Anti- 
gonus insisted upon, before he would assist Aratus 
and the Achaean league. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

THE DEATH OF PHILOPCEMEN. 
B. c. 182. 

The history of Greece is now drawing rapidly to a 
close ; yet there is one celebrated name still to be 
mentioned, as assisting in her feeble and expiring 
efforts for freedom. It is that of Philopcemen, 
sometimes called the last of the Greeks. Philo- 
pcemen was a native of Megalopolis. He lost his 
father when he was very young, and was then 
brought up by two clever and kind friends, fellow- 
citizens, who early inspired him with a dislike to 



340 ' HISTORY OF GREECE. 

an absolute government, and a desire for liberty, 
The example of Epaminondas was that which he 
was most anxious to follow, for Epaminondas was 
the founder of Megalopolis, and his memory was 
cherished by every inhabitant of the city. From 
his childhood, Philopcemen delighted in war, and 
his reading was chiefly upon this subject ; one of 
his favourite books being the history of Alexander's 
campaigns. His thoughts, also, were constantly 
dwelling upon it ; and, even when walking along a 
road, he would amuse himself with thinking how 
he should manage if he found himself in the same 
place, at the head of an army. 

When Philopoemen was grown up to manhood, 
the wars between Cleomenes and the Achaean league 
had begun j and when he was about thirty years 
old, Megalopolis, his native city, which had always 
sided with the league, was besieged by Cleomenes, 
taken, and destroyed. This act filled the mind of 
Philopoenien with the most intense desire for ven- 
geance. He joined eagerly in the war, and distin- 
guished himself greatly at the battle of Sellasia ; 
for, after his horse had been killed under him, he 
continued to fight on fo6t, and refused to leave the 
battle field, even when both his thighs had been 
transfixed with a javelin. 

After Cleomenes fled from Sparta, and when 
Antigonus was lord of Peloponnesus, Philopcemen 
left Greece, and went to Crete, to learn more of the 
art of war by practice, as there were many contests 
just then between the cities of that island. 

The Achaean and iEtolian leagues still existed, 
though their chief power was gone. The JEtolians 
were continually giving offence by their rude, law- 
less habits ; in fact, there was a constant warfare 
between the members of the two leagues for several 
years, and when Philopcemen came back to Greece, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 341 

he was made general of the Achaean league. The 
Achgeans were supported by the king of Macedon, 
Philip V., who had succeeded Antigonus. He was 
considered the head of the Grecian states, as the 
kings of Macedon had been before him ; and for 
this reason it seemed natural to apply to him in 
cases of dispute. But, as it had always happened, 
the interference of a person, who was in part a for- 
eigner, brought great evils upon the country ; and 
now the Greeks were to suffer, not only from the 
king of Macedon, but from the Romans, who were 
bent upon conquering Macedon. 

Aratus had died before Philopoemen was made 
general of the league. He quarelled with Philip V., 
who was an extremely wicked man, and Philip 
caused him to be poisoned ; and now Philopoemen 
seemed to be the only person in Greece really able 
to guide and advise the people. His first object 
was to reform the habits of the Achaeans, who de- 
pended almost entirely upon the Macedonians, and 
had become extremely luxurious, spending large 
sums in* dress and beautiful furniture, and caring 
so little for war that they grudged the money which 
they were obliged to lay out in arms. Philopoe- 
men's influence was so great, that in a very short 
space of time — only a few months, indeed — he con- 
trived entirely to change their notions. He made 
the young men feel how absurd their habits of life 
were, and he inspired them with such a longing for 
military glory, that they began to take pride in 
every thing connected with war. The rich sent 
their plate to be melted down, that they might em- 
ploy the silver in decorating their arms ; and it was 
considered ridiculous to be seen in a handsome 
dress except on parade. What was of much great- 
er importance, the young men were really taught to 
be soldiers, and obliged to live the life and practise 



342 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

the duties of their profession. In this way Philo 
poemen exerted himself so successfully, that, in about 
eight months 7 time, he had an army fit for service, 
and was able to gain a victory over the Spartans, 
who belonged to the iEtolian league, without the 
aid of Macedonia. 

The Peloponnesians now began to look upon 
Philoposraen as the defender of Grecian liberty. 
But it was too late for him, or indeed for any one, 
to bring back the days of glory and freedom which 
were gone. Philip of Macedon was at this time at 
open war with the Romans, and the Romans brought 
armies into Macedonia, and from thence into Greece. 
Nearly all the Grecians sided with the Romans, but 
this only served to engage their* in war, not for 
themselves, but for a foreign power which did not 
in the least care for their good. 

The Romans were then the most powerful people 
in the world. Philip withstood them for a long 
time, but they defeated him entirely at a battle in 
Thessaly, and from that time Macedonia was sub- 
ject to them. This battle is called the battle of 
Cynoscephalse, from a ridge of mountains called 
Cynoscephalse, or Dog's Heads, near which it was 
fought. The Greeks thought that this event would 
be for their advantage. The Romans professed 
that they meant Greece to be independent ; and 
Flaminius, one of the Roman generals, caused the 
freedom of the country to be solemnly proclaimed 
at the Isthmian games. The delight cf the people 
on this occasion was so great, that they almost 
crushed Flaminius with the quantity of garlands 
and flowers which they showered upon him, and 
their shouts of joy so rent the air, that birds which 
were flying over the heads of the people are said to 
have fallen to the ground. 

There was one circumstance, however, which 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 343 

soon taught the Greeks that this hope of freedom 
was vain. The Romans insisted upon keeping pos- 
session of three Greek cities : — Chalcis in Euboea, 
Demetrias in Thessaly, and Corinth : — which one of 
the Macedonian kings had been accustomed to call 
the fetters of Greece, because whoever possessed 
them could keep the people in entire subjection. 
So it was now. The Roman power took the place 
of the Macedonian, and whatever Rome ordered, 
Greece was obliged to submit to. 

The iEtolians tried once to throw off the yoke, 
and begged for the assistance of Antiochus, king of 
Syria ; and Antiochus came over to Greece, and 
several of the other Grecian states supported him. 
But nothing could stand against the power of the 
Romans. Antiochus was defeated, the iEtolians 
were obliged to pay a large sum of money, and give 
up all power of their own, and the iEtolian league 
was destroyed. 

Thus it happened at last with the Achaean league 
also. Its members were stronger and better guided 
than those of the iEtolian league, and therefore it 
lasted longer. But it met with the same fate in the 
end. 

The great sources of evil were the disputes 
amongst the Greeks themselves. Sparta had been 
obliged to join the Achaean league, but it was un- 
willingly, and there was always a jealousy between 
her and the other states. This ill feeling at length 
brought on an open quarrel, and a war, in which 
Philopoemen, who was at the head of the Achaean 
league, took entire possession of the city of Sparta, 
altered the government, and obliged the Spartans 
to do away with the laws and institutions of Ly- 
curgus. 

The Spartans appealed to the Romans, as in 
former times the Greek states had been accustomed 



344 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

to appeal to the kings of Macedon. The llomans 
would not interfere by force of arms, and acted sc 
as to make each party believe that they were in 
some degree favoured. 

The Spartans now were powerless ; but the Mes- 
senians carried on a war instead, and Philopoemen 
commanded an army against them. He was by 
this time an old man, having reached the age of 
seventy, but his energy still remained the same. A 
fever attacked him, and left him extremely weak, 
yet he was resolved to head an engagement against 
the Messenians, and exerted himself even beyond 
his strength. His troops, however, were forced to 
retreat, and Philopoemen fell from his horse, and, 
being stunned, was taken prisoner. 

His enemies, the Messenians, carried him in 
triumph to Messene, exhibited him in the theatre 
as a spectacle to the multitude, and then threw him 
into a dungeon, — a kind of pit which had only an 
opening at the top, and was secured by a heavy 
stone. The next day a secret council was held, and 
it was resolved to destroy him. The executioner 
was sent to him with a cup of poison. Philopoemen 
inquired after the fate of some troops which he had 
intended to join if he had been successful in the 
last unfortunate engagement, and, having learned 
that they were in safety, he calmly drank the cup 
of poison and expired. 

Such was the end of the " last of the Greeks." 
His death was soon followed by what may be con- 
sidered the death of his country. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 345 



CHAPTER XL VI. 

CORINTH DESTROYED, AND GREECE MADE A ROMAN 
PROVINCE. 

b. c. 146. 

The Romans were now so powerful in Greece, that 
when Perseus, king of Macedon, who succeeded his 
father Philip, made immense efforts to carry on a 
war against Rome, no city or state in Greece, ex- 
cept the towns in Bceotia dared to give him assist* 
ance. He was joined by the Syrians, the Bithy- 
nians, the Carthaginians, the kings of Illyricum, 
and Thrace, and even by some of the barbarous 
tribes on the Danube, but the Greeks were afraid. 
They dared not rebel against their great lords. 
Perhaps it was well for them that they did not ; for 
Perseus experienced the same fate as every other 
monarch who resisted Rome. He was defeated at 
the battle of Pydna, in Macedon, and his country 
ceased to be an independent kingdom, and became 
a Roman province. 

The Greeks were allowed to call themselves in- 
dependent for a few years longer. They had so 
little power, that the Romans did not trouble them- 
selves about them, unless they seemed at any time 
inclined to disobey, their orders ; then they inter- 
fered at once, and often very cruelly. On one oc- 
casion, more than a thousand of the first men in 
Greece were sent to Italy, to be tried for some of- 
fence they were accused of; and, when they arrived, 
instead. of being put upon their trial, they were dis- 
tributed amongst different towns, and actually kept 
there for seventeen years, in spite of all the peti- 
tions that their friends made for them. Even at 
last, when they were allowed to return, the Roman 
government gave the permission from a feeling of 



346 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

proud indifference, and not from any kindness or 
sympathy. Cato, the censor, was the person who 
urged the senators to allow the exiles to go back, 
and all he said was, " Have we nothing better to 
do than to be deliberating a whole day about a few 
old Greeks, whether they shall be put in the grave 
here or in their own country ?" This is sufficient 
to show the contemptuous feeling which the proud 
Romans entertained towards the Greeks in their 
fallen state ; and yet they were not too proud to 
learn from them, for the Romans had very little 
knowledge themselves of painting and sculpture, 
and arts which required taste and elegance ; and 
were indebted to the Greeks for almost all they 
knew about them. The tutors and governors of the 
families of the wealthy Romans were generally 
chosen from amongst the Greeks, and at last the 
Romans became as civilized as their teachers ; but 
they never, as a nation, had the same perception of 
what was beautiful and graceful. 

This connection between the two nations took 
place, however, chiefly after Greece became a Ro- 
man province, in the year e. c. 146. 

The Athenians were, in fact, the cause of the 
change in the government of the country. They 
had become so weak and so poor, that they actually 
oppressed and pillaged one of their own towns. 
The other states interfered, and a war was the con- 
sequence. But the Romans did not choose them 
to carry on contests between themselves, and sent 
word that they would settle their disputes for 
them. This made the Greeks very angry, and for 
the last time the members of the Achaean league 
declared war against Rome. 

Of course the contest was quite hopeless. The 
Romans sent an army into Peloponnesus, and the 
consul 3 Lucius Mummius, gained a victory, not far 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 34? 

torn Corinth, which put an end to the Achaean 
league for ever. Corinth was first plundered, and 
then, on a signal given by the blast of a trumpet, 
it was set on fire. The men were killed, and the 
women and children, and any slaves who could be 
found in it, were sold. 

Corinth was the richest city in Greece, and full 
of most beautiful paintiugs and works of art. The 
Roman consul carried them away, but he did not 
in the least know how to value them. The men 
made dice boards of some of the finest paintings ; 
and, though Mummius kept others to adorn his 
triumph at Rome, he agreed with the men who had 
the charge of them, that if any were injured they 
should be replaced by others of the same value. 
He thought, surely, that paintings could easily be 
replaced by any one. 

All Greece, as far as Macedon and Epirus, was 
now formed into a Roman province, and called 
Achaia, by which name it is frequently mentioned 
in the Acts of the Apostles. The name must have 
been derived from the Achaean league, which lasted 
as long as the country could in any way pretend to 
be independent. 

The history of Greece from this time is entirely 
mixed up with that of Rome. When the Roman 
Empire was divided, the eastern division was called 
the Greek Empire ; but this was only for the sake 
of distinction. Greece itself was still only a pro- 
vince subject to the emperors. The Turks entirely 
conquered the Greek Empire, when Constantinople, 
the capital, was taken by them in the year a. d. 
1453, and they then became the lords of Greece. 

Their government was very cruel, and the two 
nations felt the utmost hatred for each other. The 
Greeks often rebelled, and at length several of the 
principal European kingdoms, pitying their condi- 



248 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

iion, and remembering their former glory, 
together, and compelled the Turks to set 
free. 

Otho, the son of the king of Bavaria, was c 
for their monarch, and Greece was raised int 
kingdom, a. d. 1828. 



CHAPTER XL VII. 

It will perhaps help to fix the history of Greece 
in our minds, if we endeavour to learn something 
of the dwellings, the manners, and customs of the 
people. The descriptions will be taken, principally, 
from those which have been given by different 
writers at the time of the Peloponnesian war, and 
afterwards. There is little said about these things 
by persons who wrote in the more early days. 

In a Greek family, the women lived in private 
apartments by themselves. A Greek house, there- 
fore, was always divided into two distinct portions, 
one for the men, and the other for the women. The 
house sometimes, but not always, stood back from 
the street ; and there was generally an altar to 
Apollo before it- — or perhaps a laurel tree, which 
was sacred to Apollo — or a head of the god Her- 
mes, to mark the religious feeling of the inhabitants. 
A few steps led up to the front door, which gene- 
rally were marked with some inscription, for the 
eake of a good omen. The front of the house was 
not wide, as the rooms went far back instead of ex- 
tending sideways. The house door opened into a 
narrow passage, on one side of which were the 
stables, and on the other the porter's lodge. From 
the passage the peristyle, or court, was entered. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 349 

This court was open to the sky in the centre, and 
there were porticoes all round it, which were used 
for exercise, and sometimes for dining in, and gene- 
rally there was an altar in it on which sacrifices 
were offered to the household gods. 

Round the peristyle were the apartments for 
the men, such as large banqueting rooms, parlours, 
picture galleries, and libraries, sleeping rooms, and 
sometimes storerooms. 

A door opened from this first peristyle into 
another, which was given up for the women of the 
family. It was like that of the men, except that 
the porticoes went round three sides only, and on 
the fourth there was a kind of recess, which formed 
a vestibule to the other apartments. The rooms 
on each side of the vestibule were sleeping rooms. 
That on the right-hand side was the principal bed- 
chamber of the house, and any valuable articles of 
ornament were usually kept in it. Beyond these 
rooms were large apartments for working in wool, 
which formed part of the occupation of the house- 
hold. The eating room, and other apartments, 
were built round the peristyle. Usually there was 
an upper story to the house, occupied by the slaves ; 
the roof of this sometimes projected over the lower 
story, and formed balconies or verandahs. The 
stairs which led to the upper story were sometimes 
on the outside of the house. The roofs were gene- 
rally flat, and it was customary to walk about upon 
them. 

In the interior of the house there were some- 
times curtains instead of doors. The principal 
openings for light and air were in the roofs of the 
peristyle, but windows were not uncommon. There 
were fireplaces, but it is supposed that chimneys 
were unknown, and that the smoke escaped through 
30 



350 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

an opening in the roof of the apartment. Little 
portable stoves also were often used. 

The houses of the rich people, who lived in the 
country, were much more magnificent than those in 
the town. Generally speaking, the Greeks in then 
best days lived in small plain houses, and employed 
their money and their taste on the temples and 
public buildings. The floors of the houses were of 
stone, and the walls were white, till about the time 
of Alcibiadas, who is the first person mentioned as 
having caused them to be painted. The practice 
was not uncommon in the time of Plato and Xeno- 
phon, and about that period also we hear of painted 
ceilings. 

The Greeks usually partook of three meals, an- 
swering very much to our breakfast, luncheon, and 
dinner. The first commonly consisted of bread 
dipped in unmixed wine ; the second — taken, pro- 
bably, about twelve o'clock — was of a light kind, 
and varied according to the habits of different per- 
sons ; the third and principal meal, was often not 
eaten before sunset. The ordinary dinner for the 
family was cooked by the mistress of the house, or 
by female slaves under her direction ; but for special 
occasions the Greeks had hired cooks. The Sicilian 
cooks were especially famous. 

When any person was invited to an entertain- 
ment, he was always expected to bathe shortly be- 
fore. We are particularly told of Socrates, that 
when he was going out to dinner, he washed and 
put on his shoes. Generally speaking, he went 
about barefooted. As soon as the guests arrived; 
their shoes or sandals were taken off by the slaves, 
and their feet were washed ; and after this they 
reclined on couches, and the slaves brought them 
water to wash their hands. The Athenian and 
Spartan men were accustomed to recline at their 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 351 

meals, but the women and children sat. Only two 
persons re-clined on the same couch. The dinner 
usually consisted of two courses. In the first were 
fish, poultry, and meat ; the second was more like 
our dessert. The most common food among the 
Greeks was a kind of frumenty or soft cake, which 
was prepared in various ways. Wheaten or barley 
bread was also usual. Pork was their favourite 
meat, and sausages were very common. They were 
also fond of fish, and ate vegetables, such as cab- 
bages, lettuces, beans, with mallows, and lentils. 
They had no knives or forks, but helped themselves 
with their fingers, and then wiped them on a piece 
of bread. They had spoons for soup, but sometimes 
they used a hollow piece of bread instead. The 
company did not all eat at the same table, but 
separate small tables were placed before each 
couch. 

When the first course was finished, water was 
brought for the guests to wash their hands ; and 
Crowns made of garlands of flowers, were given to 
them, besides perfumes of different kinds. No one 
drank any wine till after the first course, when 
some strong unmixed wine was brought, in a large 
goblet, and every one drank a little, and then pour- 
ed out a* small quantity, as a libation, or drink- 
offering, to the gods. A sacred hymn of praise was 
usually sung at the same time. 

The great amusement of the entertainment 
began with the dessert. The Greeks drank wine 
and talked after dinner as gentlemen now do in 
England ; but they also diverted themselves by 
games, such as casting dice, or throwing up huckle 
stones, or draughts. Very often, also, they asked 
each other riddles, and the persons who found them 
ont were rewarded with a crown, or a garland, or a 
kiss ; and if they failed were obliged to drink either 



352 HISTORJT OF GREECE. 

a cup of strong unmixed wine, or wine mixed with 
salt water. Music was also common on these oc- 
casions, and persons were hired to dance for the 
pleasure of the company. 

But the great enjoyment of the evening was the 
wine. Persons were often invited to wine parties, 
or symposia, as they were called, and not to dinner ; 
and one of the company was commonly chosen to 
conduct the revels, and was called the symposiarch. 
He it was who ordered everything. The wine was 
always mixed with a great deal of water, and kept 
very cool ; and honey and spices were sometimes 
put into it. The strange part of the arrangement 
was, that every one was obliged to drink exactly as 
much as the symposiarch ordered. These symposia 
often ended in a very disorderly manner, and for 
that reason they were forbidden at Sparta. 

We can tell little concerning the gardens of the 
Greeks, but it seems that they did not know much 
about flowers. Violets and roses were chiefly cul- 
tivated at Athens, because they were used in making 
garlands. They certainly had not the same ideas of 
beauty in a garden that we have, for one of their 
writers speaks of the practice* of setting off the 
loveliness of roses and violets, by planting them 
side by side with leeks and onions. 

Many private persons in Athens had large collec- 
tions of books, and sometimes the public were al- 
lowed the use of them. Aristotle is said to have 
taught one of the kings of Egypt how to arrange a 
library ; and after his time, the library at Alex- 
andria in Egypt, became the most celebrated in the 
world. 

The dress of the Greeks was very simple. Their 
principal garment was called a chiton ; but the 
Spartan chiton and the Athenian were not alike. 
The Spartan chiton was made of woollen stuff, very 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 353 

short, and without sleeves^ and it was fastened 
over both shoulders by clasps or buckles ; the Athe- 
nian chiton was a long loose dress with wide sleeves, 
and usually made of linen. The dresses of both 
men and women were originally very much alike, 
for in early days it was the custom for all to wear the 
Spartan, or, as it was called, the Dorian chiton. But 
the Athenian women were obliged afterwards to 
give up this dress, because, on one occasion, they 
were so angry with a man who returned, the only 
one alive, from a warlike expedition, that they killed 
him with the buckles which they wore on their 
shoulders. Both kinds of chiton were fastened 
round the waist with a girdle. 

Besides the chiton the Greeks generally wore an 
upper garment, or pallium, which is often spoken 
of as a blanket or shawl. The shape was square, 
and it was of different colours and patterns. It was 
usually made of wool, and was often fastened with 
a brooch over the right shoulder. Persons who 
could afford it, wore a thin pallium in summer, and a 
warmer one in winter. The splendour of a person's 
dress was usually seen in the pallium. The women's 
were in general of a finer material and of brighter 
colours than the men's; but the men did not disdain 
sometimes to show their fondness for finery by 
adopting the dress of the women. Alcibiades was 
distinguished by his purple blanket, which trailed 
upon the ground and formed a train. Females 
often employed themselves in ornamenting the pal- 
lium, and used gold thread when they wished to 
make it particularly splendid. When a person was 
very unhappy, or suffering from any great agitation 
of mind, he often covered his face with the pal- 
lium which he wore ; and it was also used to protect 
the head in case of rain. That which seems most 
strange to us is, that the same blanket which wag 



354 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

worn as a garment by day, often served to sleep in 
at night. Blankets, or pallia, were also spread on 
the ground, and used for carpets. This was quite 
an Eastern fashion, and we find it mentioned in the 
Gospels, when the people at Jerusalem spread 
their garments upon the ground, on the occasion of 
our Blessed Lord's entrance into the City. 

The use of shoes was by no means universal 
amongst the lower orders, but those which were worn 
by the upper classes, were, probably, very like our 
own, only more various in colour. There seems to 
have been just as much fashion in those days as 
in the present time, for we read of Persian shoes, 
and shoes of Alcibiades, and Sicyonian shoes, all of 
which were worn by ladies. Laconian or Spartan 
shoes, as we might easily guess, were men's shoes. 

Greek bedsteads must have resembled French 
bedsteads in some respects, but the beds themselves 
were stuffed with wool or dried weeds. The bedsteads 
were generally made of wood, and sometimes very 
expensively ornamented ; indeed, in the later periods 
of Grecian history, we hear of bedsteads of solid 
ivory, with silver feet. In spite, however, of this 
magnificence, the Asiatics used to declare that the 
Greeks did not know how to make a comfortable 
bed. 

The practice of bathing was as common amongst 
the Greeks as amongst the Romans ; but they had 
no splendid public buildings for the purpose. Per- 
sons of rank and wealth had private baths in their 
own houses, and it was customary for them to use 
two in succession, first a cold bath and then a warm 
one. 

The Athenians were far more luxurious ~m their 
mode of living than the Spartans. The habits of 
the two people, indeed, were as different as Eng- 
lish habits are from French or Italian. 



HISTORY OP GREECE. 355 

The Athenians lived very much in public. They 
met in public places, and wandered about in the 
public gardens, and cared but little for the pleasures 
of home ; but the Spartans, though they dined to- 
gether, because it was one of the rules given them 
by Lycurgus, kept to themselves at other times. 
The Athenians were much the more agreeable, but 
the Spartans seem generally to have been the more 
respected. 

The writing of the Greeks must have been like 
that of most other nations, before paper was in- 
vented. Waxen tablets were in common use, which 
were written upon with an iron instrument very like 
a pencil in appearance. 

Slavery was commonly allowed amongst the 
Greeks. Their slaves were generally prisoners 
taken in war, and belonging to foreign nations ; for 
it was a practice to restore their own countrymen 
to freedom, on payment of a sum of money. The 
slaves were in general tolerably well treated, except 
at Sparta. They were frequently employed in 
public works, but there were so many at Athens, 
that the poorest citizen had a slave to manage his 
household. Nicias had a thousand slaves in the 
mines alone. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OF THE 

OONTEMPOEAEY EVENTS OF GKECIAN AND JEWISH HISTOKY. 



B.C. 


Greece. 


B. c. 


Israel and Judah. 


B.C. 


1200 












The Siege of 
Troy - - 






1171 




1184 




1100 








1095 
1055 
1015 














David 








Solomon ---------- 


1000 








975 






Reh 








Separation of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 








Judth. 


B. c. 


Israel, 
Jeroboam - - - 


B.C. 

974 








Abijam - 


957 












Asa - 


y55 


Nadab - - - - 
Baasha - - - - 
Elah - 

Zimri - - - - 
Omri - - - - 
Ahab 


954 
953 
930 
929 
929 
918 








Jehosaphat - 


914 






900 














897 






Ahaziah - 












Jehoram or Joram - 


89fi 








Jehoram or Joram 


S89 












Ahaziah or Jehoahaz - 


RRS 












Athaliah - - - 


884 


Jehu - 


884 








Jehoash or Joash - 


878 


Jehoahaz - 
Jehoash or Joash - 


856 
839 




The Laws of 




Amaziah - 


838 








Lycurgua - 


825 


Uzziah or Azariah - 


810 


Jeroboam II. - - 


825 


800 












773 












Zachariah - 












Shallum - - - - 


772 












Menahem - - - 


772 












Pekahiah - - - 


761 












Pekah - 


7W 




The 1st Messe- 




Jotham - - - - 


758 








nian War - 


743 


Ahaz - - - - 
Hezekiah - - - 


742 

727 


Hoshea - 

The Kingdom of Israel 
overthrown by the As- 
syrians - - - 


730 

721 


700 















CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



b67 



The 2d Messenian War 



Solon gives Laws to Athens 



Pisistratus, Tyrant of Athens 



Hippias expelled from Athens 



The Burning of Sardis 

The Battle of Marathon - - 

The Battles of Thermopylae and 

Salamis - 
The Battle of Platsea - 
Themistocles banished 
Cimon banished - 



The Building of the Parthenon. 

the Propylaea, &c. - - - 
The Beginning of the Peloponne- 

sian War ----- 
The Plague at Athens 
The Siege of Plataea begun 
Pylos taken and fortified 
The Peace of Niceas - - 
Commencement of the Sicilian 

War - - - - 

The Return of Alcibiades - 
The Battle of Arginusse, and the 

unjust Sentence against the A- 

thenian Generals 
The Battle of ^Egos Potami 
The Government of the Thirty 

Tyrants - - - - - 
The Retreat of the Ten Thousand 

Greeks - - - - 



Amon 
Josiah 



Jehoahaz 
Jehoiakim 



Jehoiakin or Jeconiah 
Zedekiah 

Judah carried captive to 
Babylon 



Cyrus proclaims Liberty 

to the Jews 
Foundation of the second 

Temple 
Temple finished 



Ezra sent to govern Ju- 
daea - 
Nehemiah sent 



643 

641 



610 
610 



358 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



B.C. 


Greece. 


B.C. 

399 
387 
371 
262 
367 
338 

334 
333 

330 
325 
323 
322 
318 

244 
182 

146 


Judah. 


B. c. 


Israel. \ 


300 


The Death of Socrates 
The Peace of Antalcidas 
The Battle of Leuctra - 
The Battle of Mantinea 
Commencement of the Sacred War 
The Battle of Chaeronea 
Invasion of Persia by Alexander 

the Great - 
The Battle of Jssus - 
The Battle of Arbela or Gauga- 

mela - 
Alexander defeats Porus 
Death of Alexander the Great - 
Athens taken by Antipater - 
Athens submits' to Cassander 








200 


Agis rv. endeavours to reform 
Sparta - 






1 




Death of Philopcemen 

Corinth destroyed, and Greece 
made a Roman Province - 


Cruel treatment of the 
Jews by Antiochus E- 
piphanes - 

Restoration of the Daily 
Sacrifice, and purifica- 
tion of the Temple by 
Judas Maccabaeus 


170 
165 





TOT BSD. 



lal! 



